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ESL with
Children's Literature
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The Way
Whole Language Worked in One Kindergarten Class
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A few years ago, during a
series of workshops for primary school English teachers, I came to realize that
appropriate materials were not readily available in spite of the fact that English was
introduced in early grades-often as early as kindergarten. Most of the textbooks on the
market fell into two categories: texts intended for children learning English in the
United States, and texts for children learning English as a foreign language in areas
where English is not the language of the community. The texts, written for ESL learners,
were not suitable for the average Lebanese kindergartners. First, the content of the
lessons assumed that students possess a certain level of cultural awareness. Second, the
texts were not intended for four-year-olds but were geared more for the cognitive level of
six to seven year olds. Third, the cost of these texts was often too high, especially for
the less affluent rural schools. The EFL texts intended for developing countries, on the
other hand, although less costly, were limited in content and were structured around
vocabulary and grammar exercises-even when the aim was to address communicative aspects of
language. Furthermore, the content of these texts was also inappropriate for very young
children. These fragmented exercises, so typical of many EFL texts, clearly did not
prepare the children to learn in English. Yet many of these children were going to
study science, mathematics, and perhaps other subjects as well in English. So something
else was needed. (At the time of this writing, the situation has much improved as several
"Big Book" series are available. However, the cost is still a problem for many
schools.)
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Since I had used a whole language approach, had
taught literature with some success in teaching EFL students in university classes, and
had read about many successful literature- based, whole language reading programs in L1
(Arabic) contexts, I began to look at available children's literature as a possible tool
to teach EFL to young learners. This idea was tested by a cooperative kindergarten teacher
in a private rural school in Lebanon.
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Learning a whole language
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Extensive L1 research tells us that children
learn and create language not by sitting at their desks doing pencil and paper tasks in
isolation from their peers, or drilling structures out of context, but by interacting with
and manipulating language and by engaging in meaningful use of language in a community of
language learners. Halliday (1975) and Vygotsky (1978), among others, have stressed the
social quality of language development. Attempts to fragment language into
parts-grammatical patterns, vocabulary lists, or phonics-result in "abstractions and
nonsense" (Goodman et al., 1987), and destroys it (Rigg 1991). As a matter of fact,
some educators claim that the traditional reading skill time is difficult, and actually
even painful for many children (Holdaway 1991). If fragmented skill lessons, workbooks,
and endless worksheets are not the best way for L1 learners to develop their language and
master the art of reading and writing, they must be much less appropriate for young
foreign language learners who need to learn a whole new language. These students need to
learn to listen, to speak, to read, and to write in a new language, often without exposure
to English outside school. Because language is an interactive process, children learning a
language need ample opportunity to interact in a meaningful, interesting context and play
with the language while developing vocabulary and structures. They need the collaboration
of their peers and teachers in creating meaningful contexts and negotiating meanings in
those contexts. Constructivist theory suggests that they must "build knowledge from
the inside in interaction with the environment" (Kamii 1991). From this discussion
one can conclude that students cannot successfully acquire a new language through
decontextualized drills and skill exercises. Yet that is still the way many primary grade
EFL classes are set up.
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As language teachers have come to accept whole
language, materials and textbooks advocating whole language have begun to appear on the
market. However, textbooks that claim to cater to whole language actually contradict the
whole philosophy, which advocates language functions that are purposeful, functional, and
real to the learners, within a context of a curriculum that is flexible and evolves around
the needs and interests of the children.
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Benefits of children's literature
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Gianelli (1991:13) describes a successful
thematically-based bilingual program and suggests that thematic instruction works
"because theme-related language and vocabulary are used and reused in new contexts,
all of which are meaningfully related." The children's own, immediate environment-
themselves, family, neighborhood and school-are, of course, good sources of theme units,
but in addition to these, nursery rhymes and children's literature offer a natural and
interesting medium for language acquisition. They contain predictable, repetitive patterns
that reinforce vocabulary and structures, provide relevant themes for young learners, and
they are often highly generative . Quality literature presents a multitude of
discussion topics- from the literal to those that transcend the story and allow children
to link the story to their own lives, at times making sophisticated generalizations, as
McConaghy (1990), has pointed out.
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Just as children acquiring their first language
begin developing it orally, young children learning a second language need to develop
their oral language to some extent before they can be expected to function in writing.
However, in many classes that I had observed, young children were copying words and
phrases they did not understand and then in chorus were "reading" them to the
teacher. Carefully chosen children's literature allows children to develop their receptive
language in an entertaining, meaningful context and naturally invites them to repeat many
of the predictable words and phrases, which they gradually take ownership of and add to
their receptive and productive language. All the activities of the following experiment
heavily emphasize development of oral language. Language and the knowledge that children
construct through the use of language are very important to individual children, although
they use different means and strategies when engaging in learning. Thus, it is important
that the activities provided accommodate the diverse needs of young learners. Open-ended
activities that allow for children's interest and input are essential. Newman (1985) aptly
describes, not assignments, but "invitations" to learning. The teaching still
has objectives and goals, but the means through which the objectives are reached must be
flexible, as should be, to some extent, the objectives themselves.
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The following activities are just samples. This
is the way it worked in one kindergarten class one semester. In other classrooms, the
outcome is likely to be different, depending on the students and the teacher. The sample
activities are not intended as blueprints to be slavishly imitated, which would be against
the whole language philosophy, but as a guide for the teacher to allow the children's
individual and collective interests and abilities to mold the lessons. All the activities
can be done using one copy of the chosen story, as children will be making their own books
to read independently later on. This saves a considerable amount of money in situations
where the budget is very tight and parent resources are limited.
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The Lebanese KG experience with whole language
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The Very Hungry Caterpillar , by Eric
Carle was selected as an ideal "language story" because it had the potential of
being highly generative and allowed several themes and concepts to be generated by the
children (and the teacher). The story also contained much repetitious language, the days
of the week, and the numbers one through five that were part of the requirements for the
class. The story is about a hungry little caterpillar which eats through a variety of
edibles over a week, gets a stomachache, and, after spending time in a self-built cocoon,
emerges as a colorful butterfly.
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The class of 26 four-year olds was taught by
Betty Saade, a Lebanese-Canadian teacher in a private rural school in Lebanon. Before
Betty introduced the story to the class, we had identified potential concepts and
vocabulary for the story that met, or exceeded, the requirements for the program set for
the class. (See Table 1 .) After
discussing the whole language philosophy and how I thought it might work for the children
she taught, we made a plan of possible activities. Betty then introduced the story to the
children by asking if they would like to hear a story she had just received (instead of
the usual "today we are going to learn about." she had been accustomed to
doing). As predicted, the children reacted to the idea with enthusiasm, and she proceeded
to read the story. However, at the conclusion of the story, she did not begin to ask the
usual questions about the events and details of the story. Instead she sat and waited for
a few seconds. She did not need to wait for more than that when children began commenting
on the story. All through the discussion, Betty followed the leads the children and
decided to follow the most prominent interest: food. Most of the children's discourse was
in L1 since the children, with few exceptions, had had less than four months of exposure
to English. When the children engaged in L1, Betty used reflective listening and
"echoed" back comments in English, often extending a question to other children:
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Rania: Ana ma bhib elkabees (I don't like
pickles.)
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Teacher (nodding to Rania): "You
don't like pickles?"
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(To class): "Does Rania like
pickles?" (pointing to the pickle in the book.)
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Teacher: "That's right. She doesn't
like pickles. Pickles are sour (makes a face to indicate sour taste). Who likes
pickles?"
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Three children: "Ana, Ana!"
(Me, me)
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Teacher: "Ah. You like pickles.
Hani, Tanya, and Zeina like pickles. I like strawberries (pointing to strawberries in the
book); they are sweet. Mmmm! Who likes strawberries?"
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Several children: "Me!"
"[Ana!]" (Me)
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Teacher: "It seems that we all like
strawberries. They are sweet. Are strawberries sweet?"
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This provided necessary modeling and repetition
without the out-of-context drill flavor. Children were enjoying themselves and were
actively participating in a meaningful use of new language. With young children, it seems
to be an advantage if the teacher is familiar with the children's native language, even if
she uses only L2 herself. Betty's knowledge of Arabic enabled her to repeat children's
comments in English and reduce the frustration and loss of motivation that may result from
the lack of communication between the teacher and the children. This is especially
significant with young children whose communicative skills even in L1 are still developing
and who are already facing the stress of being separated from the familiar home
environment and their caregiver. When classroom discourse is structured so that the
teacher frequently solicits hypothesis formulation-something that books with their
predictable format are excellent for-and asks questions, children's thinking is stimulated
while teacher's frequent modeling of structures and vocabulary builds their receptive
language.
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After the story session, children were given the
customary "free time." They could choose the writing/drawing table supplied with
paper and crayons, the house-keeping corner, or the block and toy center. After the first
reading of the story, some children headed for the writing table. The story reading
continued during the week. Betty read the story several times, at times using the pointer
to follow the text as she read. Some children began to repeat the key words, and soon the
class was reading in chorus. Some children began to seek the book out during their free
time, taking turns to "read" it to each other. After six days, the demand for
the book became so great that it was natural to suggest that each student should have
his/her personal copy. By the time the books were ready, most children were able to
"read" their story and take it home. One copy was made for the class library. Figure 1 describes three sample days
from the experiment, the first and the second day, and a day approximately one week into
the unit.
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Other activities that were introduced included
picture-sorting, number or picture bingo, dramatizations with a sock puppet, painting
butterflies, and making papier- mYch, cocoons. A grocery store corner was set up that
incorporated concepts related to the story, mainly fruit and other foods. In this class,
children incorporated much vocabulary and many concepts from the story into their daily
free time activities from day one, with the number and frequency of words increasing as
the days went by.
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For the whole language approach to work in an
EFL context where the children get very little or no exposure to English outside the
class, the teacher must have near-native fluency in the target language and should be
familiar with the children's L1. Without L1 knowledge, the teacher will not be able to use
reflective listening, and thus communication will be limited.
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Irma K.
Ghosn teaches English and Education at the Lebanese American University in Byblos,
Lebanon. She has lectured and conducted teacher development workshops in Lebanon, Syria,
United Arab Emirates, and the United States. |
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Return
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- Carle, E. 1987. The very hungry caterpillar. New York: Philomel Books.
- Gianelli, M. 1991. Thematic units: Creating an environment for learning. TESOL Journal,
1, 1, pp. 13-15.
- Goodman, K. 1987. Language and thinking in school. New York: Richard C. Owen Publishers.
- Halliday, M. 1975. Learning how to mean. London: Edward Arnold
- Holdaway, D. 1991. Shared Book Experience. In Early literacy: A constructivist
foundation for whole language. eds. Kamii, C., M. Manning, and G. Manning. Washington, DC:
National Education Association.
- Kamii, C. 1991. What is Constructivism? In Early Literacy: A constructivist foundation
for whole language. eds. C. Kamii, M. Manning, and G. Manning. Washington, DC: National
Education Association.
- McConaghy, J. 1990. Children learning through literature. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
- Rigg, P. 1991. Whole Language in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 3. pp. 5-23.
- Newman, J. 1985. Whole language theory in use. Portsmouth: Heinemann.
- Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in society. eds. M.Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, and E.
Souberman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Figure 1
| Day 1 |
| Story: The Very Hungry Caterpillar by
Eric Carle |
| Children arrive |
| Calendar activity and
"morning conversation" Story time |
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The teacher reads The Very Hungry
Caterpillar by Eric Carle. After reading the story, the teacher follows the children's
lead and the discussion focuses on their favorite foods. Much of the discourse is in
Arabic, the children's L1, with the teacher repeating comments in L2,
elaborating and extending questions to different children. |
| Free time |
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Several children settle down with paper and
colored pencils to draw "things they like" as invited by the teacher. Several
food items appear in the drawings, demonstrating the influence of the story. |
| Physical activity indoors (due
to rain) |
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The teacher asks the children how they think
caterpillars move, and the children eagerly demonstrate. |
| Washroom visit before snack
time |
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The teacher has the children line up and go
through the doorway (If resources permit, the preposition could be demonstrated by hanging
a large paper fruit across the doorway for the children to go through, just as the
caterpillar went through the fruit). |
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| Snack time |
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The children spontaneously refer to the story
as they identify some of the caterpillar's food in each other's lunch boxes and munch
through their food. Animated discussions ensue in L1 with a sprinkling of L2.
The teacher circulates among the children, making comments in English and asking the
children questions. |
| Whole class
activity |
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The teacher introduces picture bingo to the
class. Pictures are drawn from the story and the teacher goes through and identifies each
picture. Many of the children repeat the words after her. |
| Free time |
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The children have a choice of puzzles,
picture books, and art table. A brief break follows, after which the L1 teacher
takes over the class. |
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| Day 2 |
| Children arrive |
| Calendar activity |
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The day is Tuesday, and the children want to
remember what the caterpillar had eaten on Tuesday. There is some disagreement, and the
teacher suggests they check it in the story. The story is brought out and the children
request a reading of the whole story after checking Tuesday's food (This went as we had
planned). |
| The story is read again |
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The teacher directs the children's attention
to the numbers in the story, and a math lesson naturally follows. The children are all
familiar with numbers one and two and now focus on the number three. The children are
eager to demonstrate their knowledge of numbers and much counting goes on. |
| Free time |
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Again the children have the choice of activity. The
influence of the story is clearly increasing as children playing with blocks count them
and organize them into groups. At the writing table, numbers appear next to drawings of
fruit and other food items.
Before snack time, the teacher introduces, "The Caterpillar Chant," written for
this project and the children eagerly join in (See Table 2). |
| Snack time |
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The children continue to be interested in food items and
try to find who has "caterpillar food' in their lunch box. Some counting of cookies
and candy bars also goes on. Some children chew holes into their flat Arabic bread, saying
they are caterpillars. |
| Outdoor activity |
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Several children "pop" around as caterpillars
which have emerged from their eggs and float around butterfly fashion: "Look, look,
butterfly!" |
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| A week into the unit |
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During the calendar activity, the children still refer to
the caterpillar's diet. The children are now joining the teacher in choral reading of the
story, and some children express interest in reading the story to the class. Two little
girls have prepared themselves and take turns "reading." They have memorized
several lines of the story. Their presentation is highly enjoyable to the class, and many
children chant parts of the story with them. The teacher suggests that perhaps the class
could retell the story so she could write it on the flip chart for everyone to see the
words. As children begin to retell the story, there is much discussion before they agree
on the correct lines.
The teacher has brought in three silkworms from a local grower, and children help her set
up a corner where the silkworm box can be kept safely. Children examine the mulberry tree
leaves, the food that the silkmoth caterpillars eat. The color and texture of the leaves
are discussed, but the children's main interest is the caterpillars. They note that these
are not the same color as the caterpillar in the story. The children spend much of their
free time observing the caterpillars.
The teacher observes that several children seem to have internalized the number concepts
of "three," "four," and "five" and can rapidly identify the
number of items in a group without actually having to count.
The children play alphabet bingo using vocabulary from the story. They also recite
"The Caterpillar chant." |
Caterpillar Chant |
Sing to the tune of
Frere Jacques, or chant as a Jazz chant |
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Caterpillar, caterpillar, |
How are you? How are you? |
Inside your cocoon, inside your
cocoon |
What do you do? What do you do?
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Table 1
Concepts and target vocabulary identified
for
The Very Hungry Caterpillar |
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| butterfly life cycle |
days of the week |
| on; through; out of; inside |
hungry |
| food groups |
eat; ate |
| numbers 1- 5 |
caterpillar |
| stomachache |
cocoon |
| apple; plum; orange; strawberry |
tiny; big; fat |
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| Note: In the experimental class the
vocabulary grew to include particular children's favorite foods: hamburger, fries,
bananas, honey. In another class, with another group of children, the vocabulary will
reflect the particular children's interests. |
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