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Title: Bangladesh Human Rights Practices, 1995
Author: U.S. Department of State
Date: March 1996
BANGLADESH
Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy headed by Prime Minister Khaleda
Zia, leader of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). Opposition
parties include the Awami League, the Jatiyo Party, the Jamaat-E-Islami,
and several smaller parties. The opposition began a boycott of
Parliament in March 1994; opposition members resigned from Parliament en
masse in December 1994. Throughout 1995 the opposition demanded that
the Government establish a caretaker government to conduct national
elections, which were scheduled to be held in early 1996.
The Home Affairs Ministry controls the police and paramilitary forces,
which bear primary responsibility for maintaining internal security.
The army and paramilitary forces are responsible for security in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), where a tribal force has waged a low-level
insurgency for 20 years. A cease-fire between government forces and
insurgents generally held throughout the year, although each side
accused the other of extensive violations. Some police officers
committed a number of serious human rights abuses.
Bangladesh is a poor country. Annual per capita income is approximately
$210; about 40 percent of the country's 119 million people exist on
incomes insufficient to meet minimum daily needs. Sixty percent of the
work force is involved in farming, which accounts for approximately 40
percent of the gross domestic product. There is a small industrial
sector, based largely on the manufacture of garments and jute. Efforts
to reform the economy have been hampered by political stalemate, public
sector enterprises, and other entrenched interests.
The Government continues to restrict or deny many fundamental rights.
It continues to use national security laws to detain political opponents
and other citizens without formal charge. Police routinely use torture
and other forms of mistreatment in interrogating suspects. More than
100 detainees died in police custody. The Government rarely convicts
and punishes those responsible for torture or causing unlawful deaths.
A large case backlog slows the judicial process. The Government places
some limitations on freedom of assembly. Women, minorities, the
disabled, and indigenous people face societal discrimination. Violence
against women remains a serious problem, as does abuse of children. The
Government continues to limit workers' rights.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1
Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom from:
a. Political and Other Extrajudicial Killing
According to government figures, 101 persons died while in custody in
the first 9 months of 1995. Government records indicated that post
mortems were performed in all cases, and with one exception, there was
no evidence reported that any prisoner died from mistreatment. However,
numerous press and human rights reports concerning police abuse and
deaths of prisoners indicate that this claim is inaccurate and masks
serious abuse. In the one possible case of death by police mistreatment
reported by the Government, the Government indicated that the five
police officials in question were suspended and charged in connection
with the death. Police brutality appears to occur regularly, and
government inaction allows it to continue. For example, in August a 14-
year-old girl travelled by bus to the northern town of Dinajpur and was
allegedly raped and beaten to death by police from whom she had hitched
a ride. The Home Ministry issued a press note claiming that she died
after jumping from the police vehicle. Large demonstrations took place
in Dinajpur in which police killed seven people; several hundred
demonstrators were reportedly injured. Public wrath over the
Government's handling of the incident eventually caused the Government
to transfer the entire police force out of Dinajpur, suspend the three
officers accused in the case and the district Superintendent of Police,
and set up judicial committee to investigate the girl's death. Partly
at the recommendation of the committee, whose report has not been made
public, the three officers were eventually dismissed from their jobs.
Nonetheless, a climate of police impunity from punishment remains a
serious obstacle to ending torture and abuse, and the killings that
result from them.
Violence, often resulting in killings, is a feature of the political
process. Demonstrators from all parties, and even within parties, often
clash with police and with each other during rallies and demonstrations.
Between January and October, violence among student political groups
reportedly resulted in 10 deaths, hundreds of injuries, and the closure
of dozens of educational institutions. In December armed violence
between rival student groups at Bangladesh Agricultural University in
Mymensingh led to four deaths. Clashes between police and student
activists at Chittagong Medical College in December led to the arrest of
84 students and the indefinite closure of the college.
In March farmers and some students, primarily in the north-central part
of the country, rioted over the shortage and high price of fertilizer
during the peak of the rice cultivation season. Farmers in at least two
areas attempted to loot government stocks. At least 19 persons were
killed when police opened fire on rioters.
In June the Government charged former President Mohammed Ershad with
ordering the 1981 murder of the alleged assassin of President Zia.
Ershad had already been serving a 20-year sentence for corruption (see
Section 1.c.).
b. Disappearance
There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances.
c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment
Although the Constitution prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman, or
degrading punishment, police routinely employ psychological and physical
torture and other abuse during arrests and interrogations. Torture may
consist of threats, beatings, and, occasionally, the use of electric
shock. In April, two boys (ages 7 and 8) were detained by police and
beaten and given electrical shocks in an effort to extract confessions
regarding the supposed theft of a pistol. The Government rarely
convicts and punishes those responsible for torture, and a climate of
impunity allows such police abuses to continue.
Most prisons are overcrowded and lack adequate facilities. There are
three classes of cells: A, B, and C. Common criminals and low-level
political workers are generally held in C cells which often have dirt
floors, no furnishings, and poor quality food. The use of restraining
devices on prisoners in these cells is common. Prisoners in the C cells
reportedly suffer the worst abuses, including beatings or being forced
to kneel for long periods. Conditions in B and A cells are markedly
better; A cells are reserved for prominent prisoners (former President
Ershad's cell is reportedly equipped with facilities beyond those
available in other A cells). A government-appointed committee of
private citizens monitors prisons monthly but does not release its
findings.
Former President Ershad is serving a 20-year sentence for conviction on
two corruption charges; he has 14 other corruption charges pending
against him in court. He was also charged during 1995 with the 1981
murder of the alleged assassin of President Zia (see Section 1.a.). In
1992 Ershad's supporters filed a writ of habeas corpus in the Supreme
Court asserting that his living conditions were inhumane and that he has
been denied proper medical care. Ershad's treatment and condition came
under particular scrutiny in November when he was diagnosed with
jaundice. The Government appointed a five-member medical board to
examine Ershad and monitor his health. Following visits to the jail,
Ershad family members, who claimed that they had been denied proper
visitation rights, alleged that the former President's treatment was
inadequate and that he required full hospitalization. The medical board
recommended that Ershad be transferred to a city hospital. Citing
security concerns, the Government kept Ershad in prison. Raushan
Ershad, the ex-President's wife, undertook a 8-day hunger strike to
press for his transfer. Toward the end of the year Ershad's health had
improved, but he is reportedly recovering slowly.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
The Government continued to use national security legislation, namely
the Special Powers Act (SPA) of 1974, to detain citizens without formal
charges. There was discussion among politicians and Members of
Parliament about repealing the Special Powers Act, but no action has
been taken.
Under the SPA, the Government may detain anyone deemed "a threat to the
security of the country" for 30 days. At the end of that time, it must
either charge or release the detainee. In practice, detainees are
sometimes held for longer periods without charge. If the Government
files charges, detainees have 15 days to appeal the detention order to
the Home Ministry, which may grant early release.
After 6 months, a review panel composed of two High Court judges
selected by the Law Ministry examines cases of detainees. If the
Government adequately defends its detention order, the detainee remains
imprisoned; if not, the detainee is released. Detainees are allowed to
consult with lawyers while in detention, although usually not until a
charge is filed. Detainees may receive visitors, and incommunicado
detention is not practiced.
From January thru September, the authorities detained 2,371 persons
under the SPA. As of October, the courts had ordered 1,918 detainees
released. Government figures indicate that 1,417 persons were in
detention under the SPA at the end of September.
The Government allowed another widely used statute, the Anti-Terrorism
Act, to expire in November 1994, leaving 489 cases pending. During the
year, 37 of the pending cases came to trial.
In July police detained writer Farhad Mazhar under the SPA (see Section
2.a.).
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
The judiciary displays a high degree of independence, as mandated by the
Constitution, especially at the higher levels. The judiciary often
rules against the Government in criminal, civil, and even politically
controversial cases. In one politically sensitive case, an Appellate
Court in June ruled in favor of former President Ershad's appeal of a
1991 conviction of illegally possessing a firearm (a 9mm pistol given to
him by Saddam Hussain) without a license.
The court system has two levels, the lower court and the Supreme Court.
Both hear civil and criminal cases. The lower court consists of
magistrates, who are part of the administrative branch of government,
and session judges, who belong to the judicial branch. The Supreme
Court is divided into two sections, the High Court and the Appellate
Court. The High Court hears original cases and also reviews cases from
the lower court. The Appellate Court has jurisdiction to hear appeals
of judgments, decrees, orders, or sentences of the High Court. Rulings
of the Appellate Court are binding on all other courts.
Trials are public. The law provides the accused with the right to be
represented by counsel, to review accusatory material, to call
witnesses, and to appeal verdicts. In practice, the largely rural,
illiterate population does not always understand these rights, nor do
the authorities always respect them. There is a system of bail.
However, if bail is not granted, the law does not specify a time limit
on pretrial detention. State-funded defense attorneys are provided in
only a limited number of cases, and there are few legal aid programs to
offer financial assistance.
There is corruption within the legal process. Small sums must be paid
to a number of court officials in order for a civil suit to be filed.
While these may appear to be processing fees, they are more in the
nature of bribes; they are not established by statute or regulation, are
paid to officials personally, and there is no accountability for failure
to discharge duties paid for. Defendants can sometimes pay to avoid
being served with a notice or suit. Because of the difficulty accessing
the courts and because litigation is time-consuming, alternate dispute
resolution by traditional village leaders is popular in rural
communities.
The largest problem of the court system is the overwhelming backlog of
cases. As of October, close to 500,000 cases were pending in criminal
and metropolitan courts, and more than 25,000 people, or almost 60
percent of the country's total prison caseload, were awaiting trial.
Government records show that the period between detention and trial
averages 23 weeks, but reports by the press and human rights groups
indicate that delays of several years are not unusual.
Although the Government claims that it holds no political prisoners, it
has arrested some opponents under the SPA for political reasons (see
Section 2.a.).
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or
Correspondence
The law requires authorities to obtain a judicial warrant before
entering a home. However, human rights monitors assert that the police
rarely obtain warrants, and officers violating the procedure are not
punished. In addition, the SPA permits searches without a warrant.
Some opposition members and CHT tribal leaders maintain that the
intelligence services illegally monitor their telephones and mail.
g. Use of Excessive Force and Violations of Humanitarian Law in
Internal Conflicts
The Shanti Bahini, a tribal group, has waged a low-level conflict in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) since the early 1970's to deter Bengali
settlers who seek to exploit the Tracts' fertile and sparsely populated
land. Government settlement programs increased the number of Bengali
inhabitants in the CHT from 3 percent of the region's total population
in 1947 to an estimated 48 percent in 1995. Although the Government
prohibits further settlement of the area except for the purpose of
starting a business, such as rubber planting, citizens from the
flatlands continue to move in.
All sides--indigenous tribes, settlers, and security forces--have
accused each other of human rights violations. It is difficult to
verify facts in specific incidents because government travel
restrictions, tight security, difficult terrain, and unsafe conditions
created by the insurgency limit access to the area.
In late 1993, violence erupted in the remote town of Naniarchar when a
tribal group demonstrated for removal of a security checkpoint. A group
of Bengali settlers reportedly attacked the demonstrators and other
persons in the town and looted and burned tribal homes. At least 27
people were killed and 100 injured before the police and army restored
order. A government commission which investigated the violence has not
issued an official finding.
There was at least one major violent incident in the CHT in 1995. In
March a clash erupted between the Hill Students Council, a group
representing indigenous Marma students, and a non-tribal group, and
later police, in Bandarban. Reports from the area claimed that at least
50 people on all sides were injured, and several hundred houses
destroyed by fire. There were unconfirmed reports of two deaths. The
Government appointed a committee to investigate the incident, but no
report had been issued by year's end.
The Government continued talks with Shanti Bahini's political wing, the
Jana Sanghati Samiti (JSS), and the two sides agreed at short, regular
intervals to extend their cease-fire, the latest until March 31, 1996,
when talks between the two groups were scheduled to resume. The
Government also extended the amnesty for insurgents as long as the
dialogue with the Shanti Bahini continues.
Few Chakma tribal members who had fled the conflict in the CHT and
sought shelter in refugee camps in India returned to Bangladesh in 1995.
Officially there was no repatriation during 1995, in part because the
Shanti Bahini allegedly discouraged refugees from repatriating; however,
government officials note that some refugees returned voluntarily and
have been assisted in their resettlement. Some organizations based in
the Hill Tracts continue to assert that conditions were not suitable for
repatriation because of government repression.
Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
The Constitution provides for freedom of speech, expression, and the
press, subject to "reasonable restrictions" in the interest of security,
friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency, or
morality, or to prohibit defamation or incitement to an offense. With
some exceptions--a principal one being perceived criticism of Islam--the
Government generally respects freedom of speech.
There are frequent public rallies and speeches in opposition to
government policies. Opposition political parties have continued to use
public rallies as the main venue to express their views after they
walked out of the Parliament in early 1994.
Newspaper ownership and content are not subject to government
restriction. The press, numbering hundreds of daily and weekly
publications, is a forum for a wide range of views.
The Government seeks to influence newspapers by the placement of
advertising. Some editors complain that the Government's placement of
advertising to reward supporters and to punish critical newspapers leads
to self-censorship.
The Government now allows the import of newsprint, but most newspapers
still rely on the cheaper, subsidized product from the country's one
newsprint mill, which is government-owned. Although the Government
claims that it allocates newsprint according to a paper's circulation,
some newspaper owners allege that progovernment papers receive
preference in the setting of distribution quotas.
Foreign publications are subject to censorship. While there has been no
official banning of foreign books this year, at least one English-
language book has been kept from circulation. The Government banned a
September issue of Time magazine and censored a December issue of
Newsweek because they contained allegedly obscene photographs. In
November the Government banned a book entitled "Woman" that allegedly
offended religious beliefs. The book, written by a professor at Dhaka
University, had been in circulation since 1992. The circulation of
about 10 local books has been prohibited because of their perceived
misrepresentation of Islam.
In June three editors of the daily Janakantha, arrested in 1994 for
printing a satirical fable mocking Islamic clerics who misinterpret the
Koran, were formally charged with attacking religious sentiments. Their
appeal to the High Court is pending.
In July officers of the police Special Branch invoked the Special Powers
Act to detain Farhad Mazhar, chairman of the Board of Editors of the
weekly Bangla periodical Chinta. The Government was reportedly unhappy
with a series of articles about the December 1994 Ansar Mutiny, a
highly-publicized protest in the main Dhaka garrison of the Ansars, a
para-military security force. Mazhar spent 28 days in prison before the
High Court declared his detention illegal. Four journalists arrested in
October for defamation in connection with corruption charges made
against a local official were released on bail later that month.
In September a government minister filed a defamation suit against three
newspaper editors for publishing a statement against him from one of the
leaders of his own party. The court issued warrants for their arrest;
in the subsequent hearing, the three editors were granted bail.
Feminist author Taslima Nasreen, whose writings and statements provoked
death threats from some Islamic groups in 1993 and 1994, did not return
to Bangladesh following her departure for Europe in August 1994. The
Government charged Nasreen under a section of the Penal Code which
stipulates punishment for anyone convicted of intentionally insulting
religious beliefs. The High Court ruled in January that the Government
must provide a special authorization to bring charges against Nasreen
because her alleged acts took place in a foreign country. The
Government opted to pursue the case in spite of several opportunities
during the year to let it drop. In a subsequent hearing, the High Court
granted the Government authorization to proceed with the case and
ordered the trial, which has been postponed several times already this
year, to proceed. Although the case was scheduled to resume in October,
a series of legal maneuvers and postponements have continued to stall
proceedings. The next hearing in the case is currently scheduled for
early 1996. Nasreen may be tried in absentia. The Government has taken
no action against those who issued death threats against Nasreen, even
though such threats also violate the law.
The Government owns and controls radio and television, which provide
more extensive and favorable coverage of the Government than of the
opposition. One legal rights group filed a case with the High Court
seeking permission to operate independent television stations.
The availability of Cable News Network and the British Broadcasting
Corporation's international news and features, rebroadcast for several
hours a day on government television, has considerably increased the
public's access to international news. There are no restrictions on
installation of satellite dishes, so some citizens have increased access
to foreign media and entertainment.
The Government's film censor board continues to exercise control over
films. Three films, all produced locally, have been banned this year,
primarily for alleged distortions of the National Independence Movement.
In general, academic freedom is respected. However, research on
sensitive topics, which may be perceived to be injurious to religious
sentiments or traditional social customs, is not encouraged. Similarly,
studies relating to bureaucracy and the military need special permission
from the Government. Permission to pursue such research may not be
formally denied, but researchers may find access to appropriate
materials and sources extremely difficult. In a few cases, the
published work may be banned.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
The Constitution provides for the right of every citizen to form
associations, subject to "reasonable restrictions" in the interest of
morality or public order and in general this right is respected. In
practice, individuals are free to join private groups, but a local
magistrate must approve public meetings. Occasionally, the Government
prohibits rallies for security reasons.
The Government frequently, however, interferes with opposition rallies
and public meetings. Government officials also often cite a statute
which allows public assemblies to be prohibited--to prevent possible
violence--if two or more parties have scheduled rallies for the same
time and place. Opposition leaders claim that the ruling party, after
learning of planned opposition public gatherings, schedules other
rallies for the same time and place. Government authorities then cancel
both events, effectively thwarting the opposition's right to public
assembly.
The Government and the opposition in October 1994 entered into a
political dialogue in which one agenda item was agreement on a code of
conduct that would address issues such as public assemblies. The
dialogue failed when the opposition refused to compromise on its demand
for a caretaker government to supervise the next national elections;
there was no further progress on the issue in 1995.
c. Freedom of Religion
Approximately 90 percent of Bangladesh's 119 million people are Muslim.
The Constitution establishes Islam as the state religion but also
stipulates the right to practice the religion of one's choice. However,
some members of the Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist minorities continue
to perceive and experience discrimination toward them from the majority
community (see Section 5).
The law permits citizens to proselytize. However, strong social
resistance to conversion from Islam means that many of the missionary
efforts by non-Muslims are aimed at Hindus and tribal groups. The
Government allows various religions to establish places of worship,
train clergy, travel for religious purposes, and maintain links with
coreligionists abroad. Foreign missionaries may work in Bangladesh, but
their right to proselytize is not protected by the Constitution. Some
missionaries have encountered difficulties in obtaining residence
permits or reentry visas.
d. Freedom of Movement within the Country, Foreign Travel,
Emigration, and Repatriation
Citizens are able to move freely within the country. Travel by
foreigners is restricted in the CHT and some other border areas.
Citizens are generally free to travel abroad and emigrate. The right of
repatriation is observed.
Approximately 250,000 Rohingyas (Muslims from Burma's Arakan Province)
crossed into southeastern Bangladesh in late 1991 and early 1992,
fleeing repression. Approximately 51,000 Rohingyas remain in 6 camps in
the area of Cox's Bazar. The U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) and the Government were able to intercede in specific cases to
avoid forced repatriation by Bangladeshi authorities. Efforts to
repatriate the refugees slowed over the summer because Burmese
authorities issued a limited number of clearances. The UNHCR estimates
that the majority of the remaining refugees will repatriate in 1996.
There are about 238,000 non-Bengali Muslims, known as Biharis, who have
remained in Bangladesh since 1971 awaiting settlement in Pakistan (see
Pakistan report).
Bangladesh is not a party to the 1951 United Nations convention and its
1967 protocol relating to the status of refugees. However, the
Government generally cooperates with the UNHCR and other humanitarian
organizations in assisting refugees, such as the Rohingyas. Occasional
abuses such as the forced return or mistreatment of individual refugees
have been reported, but these appear to be the exception rather than the
rule.
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to
Change Their Government
Bangladesh is a multiparty, parliamentary democracy in which elections
by secret ballot are held on the basis of universal suffrage. Members
of Parliament (M.P.'s) are elected at least every 5 years. The
Parliament has 300 elected members, with 30 additional seats reserved
for women who are chosen by Parliament.
The last national elections were held in 1991 after the fall of the
Government of H.M. Ershad. The BNP won a plurality of seats. It
cooperated with the Jamaat-E-Islami Party to elect enough female
legislators to give the BNP a slim majority and enable it to form a
government. The opposition is led by Sheikh Hasina Wajed and her Awami
League Party. While there are a large number of minor parties, the most
significant opposition parties are the Awami League, the Jatiyo Party
(former President Ershad's party), and the Jamaat-E-Islami, the major
Islamic political party.
The Awami League and other opposition groups charged the BNP with
intimidation and vote-rigging in a parliamentary by-election in March
1994 in the district of Magura, which the BNP won. They began a boycott
of Parliament and have tried, thus far unsuccessfully, to force the
Government to resign in favor of a caretaker government, which would
oversee new elections. The opposition Members of Parliament resigned en
masse on December 28, 1994. In June 143 opposition members formally
lost their seats; the Constitution mandates that parliamentarians absent
for 90 working days must surrender their seats. Parliament now consists
largely of one party, the ruling BNP.
In addition to the 30 parliamentary seats reserved for women (whose
occupants are chosen by Parliament), women are free to contest any seat
in Parliament. Some women were elected in their own right in the last
national election, making for a total of 35 women M.P.'s before the
boycott and resignation of major opposition party members.
While seats are not specifically reserved for them, other minority
groups, such as tribal peoples, are represented in the legislature.
Prior to the opposition's resignation, there were 12 members from
minority groups in the 330-seat Parliament.
Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and
Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
The Government generally permits human rights groups to conduct their
activities. In 1995 such groups published reports, held press
conferences, and issued appeals to the Government with regard to
specific cases.
The Government is sensitive to international opinion regarding human
rights issues. It sought to defend its handling of the Taslima Nasreen
case but was open to dialogue with international organizations and
foreign diplomatic missions.
The Government has put pressure on individual human rights advocates.
Although the Government issued a reentry visa in April to Father Richard
Timm, a Catholic priest and human rights advocate who has worked in
Bangladesh for over 40 years, the process took more than a year and the
visa was valid for only 3 months. Father Timm reapplied for an
extension in July, and in November received a 6-month visa, which can be
renewed. In a similar case, after more than a year of deliberation, the
Government granted a similar 6-month visa to Father Eugene Homrich, a
long-time resident American priest, who has worked for many years in the
Madhupur Forest region with the Garos, a minority group.
The Government refused to register the Bangladesh Human Rights
Commission's Treatment Center for Trauma Victims, making it impossible
for the Center to receive funds from foreign donor organizations. Many
representatives of local human rights groups were physically attacked by
religious extremists who considered their activities "un-Islamic." The
Government failed to bring to justice those who engaged in such
violence.
Section 5 Discrimination Based on Race, Sex, Religion, Disability,
Language, or Social Status
The Constitution states that "all citizens are equal before the law and
are entitled to equal protection by the law." In practice, laws aimed
at eliminating discrimination are not strongly enforced. In this
context, women, children, minority groups, and the disabled often
confront social and economic disadvantages.
Women
Violence against women is difficult to quantify because of unreliable
statistics, but wife beating appears to be widespread. The Government
allows programs that document and counter domestic violence. In 1995
human rights groups and the press reported many incidents of violence
against women, in only some of which the perpetrators were reportedly
prosecuted. In villages, vigilante groups, sometimes led by religious
leaders, meted out humiliating, painful punishments, including whipping,
to women accused of moral offenses. The Government has enacted laws
specifically prohibiting certain forms of discrimination against women,
including the Antidowry Prohibition Act of 1980 and the Cruelty to Women
Law of 1983. Enforcement of these laws is weak, however, especially in
rural areas. The Government seldom prosecutes vigorously those cases
that are filed. A new law, the Women Repression Law, was enacted in
August but has been greeted with skepticism by women's groups, which
argue that enforcement of existing laws rather than the promulgation of
new ones should be the priority. Government records through September
indicate that 78 persons were arrested under the Women Repression Law.
Although there has been slow improvement over the last few years, women
remain in a subordinate position in society, and the Government has not
acted to protect their basic freedoms. Only 20 percent of women are
literate, compared to 35 to 40 percent of the general population. In
rural areas, only 30 percent of primary school students are female; less
than 25 percent at the secondary level, and below 15 percent at the
college and university level. Women are often unaware of their rights,
owing to high illiteracy rates and unequal educational opportunities.
Strong social stigmas and lack of economic means to obtain legal
assistance frequently keep women from seeking redress in the courts.
According to the 1961 Muslim Family Ordinance, female heirs receive less
inheritance than male heirs, and wives are more restricted in divorce
rights. Men are permitted to have up to four wives. Laws provide some
protection for women against arbitrary divorce and the taking of
additional wives by husbands without the first wife's consent, but the
protections generally apply only to registered marriages. Marriages in
the countryside are often not registered because of the high fees.
While employment opportunities have been stronger for women than for men
in the past few years, this is almost entirely due to the growth of the
garment industry, in which female workers are prevalent. Women still
occupy only a small fraction of other wage-earning jobs, and hold fewer
than 5 percent of government jobs. The Government's policy to include
more women in government jobs has had limited effect.
Children
The Government undertakes programs in the areas of primary education,
health, family planning, and nutrition. The Government made universal
primary education mandatory in 1991, but stated that it could not fully
implement the law because of a lack of resources. Little progress was
made in 1995. The Government has also initiated programs that offer
incentives for girls to remain in school.
Human rights monitors continue to report that many children have been
abandoned, kidnaped, sold into bondage, and employed as prostitutes.
One human rights group claims that there are about 29,000 child
prostitutes. The law does not allow anyone under age 18 to engage in
prostitution and stipulates a maximum sentence of life imprisonment for
persons found guilty of forcing a child into prostitution. However,
procurers of minors are rarely prosecuted. Prostitution is legal for
those over 18 with government certification.
International trafficking in both women and children, primarily to the
Middle East, India, Pakistan, and Southeast Asia, is difficult to
quantify but appears to be extensive. Twelve victims of a child-
smuggling ring, ranging in age from 6 to 12 and allegedly enroute to
Dubai to work as jockeys in camel racing, were repatriated from India in
October. The Government has expressed concern about the problem and has
been working with U.N. agencies and nongovernmental organizations
(NGO's) to seek ways to combat it.
People with Disabilities
The laws provide for equal treatment and freedom from discrimination for
the disabled, but they often confront social and economic disadvantages.
The Government has not enacted specific legislation or otherwise
mandated accessibility for the disabled.
Indigenous People
Tribal peoples, especially in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, have a
marginal ability to influence decisions concerning the use of their
lands. Until 1985 the Government regularly parceled out land in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts to Bengali settlers.
The Government has moved toward granting the tribal peoples more
authority in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In July 1991, tribal-dominated
local government councils assumed control over primary education,
health, family welfare and the agricultural extension service, although
the real extent of their autonomy remains unclear. However, government
security forces continue to control law and order as well as land use
(see Section 1.g.).
Tribal peoples in other areas have also reported loss of land to Bengali
Muslims through questionable legal practices and other means. For
example, the Garo, who live in the Madhapur Forest region in north
central Bangladesh, have encountered problems in maintaining their
cultural traditions and livelihoods in the face of reforestation
projects. Human rights monitors in the region claim that the Garos are
being harassed and intimidated into leaving their homes to make way for
government-run, internationally financed projects.
Religious Minorities
Hindus, Christians, and Buddhists make up an estimated 10 percent of the
population. Although the Government is secular, religion exerts a
powerful influence on politics. The Government is sensitive to the
Muslim consciousness of the majority of its citizens and has sought the
political support of the Jamaat-E-Islami, the country's largest Islamic
political party.
In scattered incidents throughout the country, Islamic extremists
violently attacked women, religious minorities, and development workers.
The Government generally failed to denounce, investigate, and prosecute
perpetrators of these attacks.
Among the most serious attacks were those carried out against NGO's
accused of conducting anti-Islamic activities. Some of the violence
against NGO's was prompted when Islamic religious leaders claimed that
NGO's denigrated Islam and coerced Muslims to convert to Christianity.
Religious minorities are in practice disadvantaged in such areas as
access to government jobs and political office. Selection boards in the
government services are often without minority group representation.
Property ownership, particularly among Hindus, has been a contentious
issue since independence, when many Hindus lost landholdings because of
anti-Hindu discrimination in the application of the law. Reported cases
of violence directed against religious minority communities have also
resulted in the loss of property most recently in December 1992 after
Hindus in India destroyed the Babri mosque. Such intercommunal violence
has caused some members of religious minority groups to depart the
country. However, there were no significant instances of intercommunal
violence in 1995.
Section 6 Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
The Constitution provides for freedom of association, the right to join
unions, and, with government approval, the right to form a union.
Approximately 1.6 million members of the country's total work force of
about 45 to 50 million workers belong to unions. Only about 3 million
workers are involved in the formal industrial sector. There is a large
unreported informal sector, regarding which no reliable labor statistics
exist. While a very small proportion of the labor force is unionized,
unions are very strong in certain sectors such as jute, textiles, and
transportation. Unions in these industries have been able on occasion
to win government concessions on wages and other demands.
For a union to obtain and maintain its registration, 30 percent employee
participation in the workplace is required. However, would-be unionists
are technically forbidden to engage in any labor "activities" prior to
registration. Labor activists have protested that this requirement
severely restricts workers' freedom to associate and organize.
With the exception of workers in the railway, postal, telegraph and
telephone departments, government civil servants are forbidden to join
unions. This ban also applies to security-related government employees
such as the military and police. Bangladesh civil servants forbidden to
join unions, such as teachers and nurses, have formed associations that
perform functions similar to labor unions, that is, providing for
members' welfare, offering legal services, and airing grievances.
Collective bargaining, however, is prohibited. Some workers have formed
unregistered unions, particularly university employees and workers in
the construction and transport (both public and private) industries.
A small number of workers in the export processing zones (EPZ's) have
also skirted prohibitions on forming unions by setting up associations.
In the burgeoning garment industry there have been numerous complaints
of workers being harassed and fired in some factories for trying to
organize unions.
Ten to 15 percent of Bangladesh's approximately 4,200 labor unions are
affiliated with 23 officially registered National Trade Union (NTU)
centers (there are also several unregistered NTU's). There are no legal
restrictions on political activities by labor unions. However, the
calling of nationwide general strikes or transportation blockades by
unions is considered a criminal rather than a political act and is thus
forbidden. Some unions complained that the Government used its
Antiterrorism Law as a means to suppress both opposition political
workers and union members rather than bona fide terrorists. In November
1994, however, the Antiterrorism Law lapsed and the Government decided
not to renew it--no arrests of labor leaders under the Antiterrorism Law
had been made since 1993.
While unions are not part of the government structure, they are highly
politicized. Virtually all NTU centers are affiliated with political
parties, including one with the ruling BNP. Some unions are militant
and engage in intimidation and vandalism. Illegal blockades of public
transportation routes by strikers occurred several times during the
year, with scattered and sometimes serious violence. The worst such
case occurred in February, when clashes between striking jute and
textile workers and police left several strikers dead. Pitched battles
between members of rival labor unions occur regularly; hundreds were
injured (and at least two combatants died) in 1995 in various large jute
and textile mills, as well as in the inland water transport sector.
Fighting sometimes concerns control of rackets or extortion payoffs, and
typically involves knives, guns, and homemade bombs.
Workers are eligible for membership on their unions' executive staff,
the size of which is set by law in proportion to the number of union
members. Registration of a union may only be canceled by the Registrar
of Trade Unions with the concurrence of the Labor Court, but no such
actions were known to have been taken this year. Several cases were
filed, invariably by employers claiming that a union's membership had
fallen below the requisite threshhold, but because of a backlog and
other administrative problems, these cases have not yet been
adjudicated. There are no restrictions on affiliation with
international labor organizations, and unions and federations maintain a
variety of such links. Trade unionists are required to obtain
government clearance to travel to International Labor Organization (ILO)
meetings, but no denials of clearances were reported.
The right to strike is not specifically recognized in the law, but
strikes are a common form of protest. The most prominent recent strikes
were called by Inland Water Transport employees claiming that they were
not receiving the required minimum wage, and by jute and textile workers
seeking increased wages and benefits along with guarantees against
future privatization and retrenchment. Employees organized in
professional associations or nonregistered unions also strike. In 1995,
nurses, private elementary teachers, members of the nonadministrative
cadre of the civil service, and the Bangladesh Medical Association
(government-employed doctors) were among the striking groups. They
sought better pay or benefits, a greater share of the public budget,
inclusion in the public sector, or administrative reform. University
teachers strike for short periods from time to time over the continuing
problem of campus violence.
General strikes continue to be used by the political opposition to
pressure the Government to meet its political demands, causing
significant economic and social disruption through loss of work hours
and production. Wildcat strikes are illegal but occur frequently, with
varying government response. Wildcat strikes in the transport sector
are particularly common.
The Essential Services Ordinance permits the Government to bar strikes
for 3 months in any sector it declares "essential." This ban, generally
obeyed, has so far been applied to national airline pilots, water supply
workers, shipping operations employees and electricity supply workers.
The bans tend to be renewed every 3 months. The Government is empowered
to prohibit a strike or lockout at any time before or after the strike
or lockout begins and to refer the dispute to the Labor Court.
Mechanisms for conciliation, arbitration and Labor Court dispute
resolution were established under the Industrial Relations Ordinance of
1969. Workers have the right to strike in the event of a failure to
settle. If a strike lasts 30 days or longer, the Government may
prohibit the strike and refer the dispute to the Labor Court for
adjudication. This has not happened since 1993.
There are provisions in the Bangladesh Industrial Relations Ordinance
for immunity of registered unions or union officers from civil
liability. Enforcement of these provisions is uneven. In the case of
illegal work actions, such as transportation blockades, police have
arrested union members under either the Special Powers Act, the
Antiterrorism Law (now no longer in effect), or regular criminal codes.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
Free collective bargaining is legal only for private sector workers, on
condition that the workers are represented by unions legally registered
as collective bargaining agents by the Registrar of Trade Unions.
Collective bargaining occurs on occasion in large private enterprises
such as pharmaceuticals, jute and textiles, but with unemployment in the
30 percent range, workers' concerns with job security often outweigh
wage and other issues. Collective bargaining generally does not occur
in small private enterprises.
Public sector workers' pay levels and other benefits are recommended by
the National Pay and Wages Commission. The Commission's recommendations
are binding and may not be disputed except on the issue of
implementation.
Under the Industrial Relations Ordinance, there is considerable leeway
for discrimination against union members and organizers by employers.
For example, the Ordinance allows arbitrary transfer of workers
suspected of union activities. Complaints that employers routinely
engage in antiunion discrimination are particularly common in the
garment industry. In practice, private sector employers tend to
discourage any union activity. The Registrar of Trade Unions rules on
discrimination complaints. In a number of cases the Labor Court has
ordered the reinstatement of workers fired for union activities.
However, the Court's overall effectiveness is hampered by a serious case
backlog, and there have also been allegations that some of its
deliberations have been corrupted by employers.
Current law prohibits professional and industry-based unions in
Bangladesh's two Export Processing Zones (EPZ's). In addition to the
prohibition on unions, no collective bargaining takes place in the
EPZ's. Although no action has so far been taken, the Government has
stated that restrictions on unions in the EPZ's will be lifted by 1997.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The Constitution prohibits forced or compulsory labor. The Factories
Act and the Shops and Establishment Act, both passed in 1965, set up
inspection mechanisms to enforce laws against forced labor. These laws
are not rigorously enforced, partly because resources for enforcement
are few. While Bangladesh does not experience large-scale bonded labor,
there is forced labor to the extent that workers are often required to
work later than stipulated by law, with no special compensation. This
is a notable problem in the garment industry, for example, which
operates in high-volume, short-deadline modes of production.
d. Minimum Age for Employment of Children
The law prohibits labor by children. The Factories Act of 1965 bars
children under age 14 from working in factories. This law also
stipulates that young workers (that is, children and adolescents) are
allowed to work only a maximum 5-hour day and only between the hours of
7 a.m. and 7 p.m.
In reality, enforcement of these rules is inadequate. According to a
1990 labor force survey by the Bureau of Statistics, the country has 5.7
million working children 10 to 14 years of age. United Nations
estimates are that about one-third of Bangladesh's population under the
age of 18--the child labor definition is 14--is engaged in some type of
formal or informal employment. Children are commonly seen driving
rickshaws, breaking bricks at construction sites, carrying fruits,
vegetables, and dry goods for shoppers at markets, and working at tea
stalls. They are found as peelers, packers, and beach combers in the
shrimp industry, and work side-by-side with other family members in
small-scale and subsistence agriculture. Children also routinely
perform domestic work. Cases of children being physically abused and
occasionally killed by the head of household where they work are
reported in the press. Under the law, every child must attend school
through the fifth grade. However, the Government continues to maintain
that it does not yet have the resources to implement this law
effectively.
In anticipation of possible foreign legislation prohibiting the import
of products made by child labor, thousands of underage workers employed
in the ready-made garment industry were fired in 1993. Many were
probably rehired later by other factories or in subcontracting
operations.
Concerned about a possible boycott of Bangladeshi garments by foreign
child labor advocacy groups, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and
Exporters Association (BGMEA) pledged to make its member factories child
labor-free. Protracted negotiations were held to ensure that the
dismissed children were placed into schools rather than onto the
streets. These talks led to the July agreement on a Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) between the BGMEA, the U.N.'s Chidren Fund, and the
ILO to eliminate child labor in the garment sector in a way that
provides a safety net for dismissed children. The MOU establishes a
cooperative program to identify underage workers (through surveys of the
garment factories) and then to remove them from their factories and
place them in new schools. The children will receive a monthly stipend
to help replace their lost income. According to the MOU, qualified
family members will be hired to replace child workers when possible, and
children will not be replaced until surveys are complete and educational
programs are in place. Completed in late October, the surveys
identified some 12,000 children working in the garment sector.
Preparations for opening the first schools under the MOU were well
advanced by year's end.
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
There is no national minimum wage. Instead the Wage Commission, which
convenes every several years, sets wages and benefits industry by
industry. In most cases, private sector employers ignore this wage
structure, arguing that low labor productivity vitiates any argument for
a set wage. In 1993 the Confederation of Labor Unions (SKOP) won a
minimum wage agreement for public sector factory workers that was
slightly above the level recommended by the 1992 Wage Commission.
According to the agreement, government factory workers receive about $24
(950 taka) a month plus benefits. Private sector wages tend to fall
below the total government wage and benefits package. Organized jute
and textile workers in particular have called strikes in an attempt to
win wage parity for their industry's private sector workers. The
average monthly wage is sufficient to support life, but is not by any
means a comfortable wage for a family.
The law sets a standard 48-hour workweek with 1 day off. A 60-hour
workweek, inclusive of a maximum 12 hours of overtime, is allowed. The
law is poorly enforced in industries such as hosiery and ready-made
garments.
The Factories Act of 1965 nominally sets occupational health and safety
standards. The law is comprehensive but appears to be largely ignored
by many employers. Workers may resort to legal action for enforcement
of the law's provisions, but few cases are actually prosecuted.
Enforcement by the Labor Ministry's industrial inspectors is weak. Due
to high unemployment and inadequate enforcement of the laws, workers
demanding correction of dangerous working conditions or refusing to
participate in perceived dangerous activities risk losing their jobs.
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