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TITLE: ANGOLA HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES, 1993
DATE: JANUARY 31, 1994
AUTHOR: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE
ANGOLA
Throughout 1993 the Government of the Republic of Angola and
the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)
remained embroiled in a brutal civil war. A partial cease-fire
took hold during October, permitting the delivery of food and
medical supplies to some interior towns. Twice during the year
the Government and UNITA initiated negotiations under the
auspices of the United Nations (U.N.); at year's end these
negotiations were continuing. UNITA, led by Jonas Savimbi,
claimed that the governing party, the Popular Movement for the
Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by President Jose Eduardo dos
Santos, engaged in massive fraud during the multiparty
presidential elections in September 1992, with the result that
the UNITA candidate, Savimbi, was deprived of victory. The
United Nations did not accept the UNITA allegation and declared
the elections generally free and fair.
Setting the stage for the renewed fighting in 1993 was the
failure to complete, prior to the September 1992 elections, the
demobilization process and the formation of the new national
army called for in the 1991 Bicesse Peace Accords. While
government military forces demobilized quickly in the
expectation of a lasting peace, UNITA elements remained
prepared for rapid mobilization and had access to arms never
surrendered during the demobilization process. As a result,
UNITA forces were able to occupy large parts of the country
with little effective opposition by the Government. Attempts
to counter UNITA advances required the Government virtually to
recreate and rearm its military organization. In the interim
the Government relied heavily on its antiriot police and arming
the urban populace for combat roles. The result has been a
bloody and inconclusive war. Through most of 1993, UNITA
controlled most of the national territory, including the
diamond mines of Lunda Norte province, which it used to finance
its operations.
The majority of the population lived in or migrated to the
parts of the country that remained in government hands.
Angola has great economic potential with extensive petroleum
and diamond reserves, rich agricultural land, and hydroelectric
potential, but faces severe macroeconomic distortions resulting
from the war and misguided economic policy. Territory under
government control suffered from hyperinflation, scarcity of
consumer goods, massive unemployment and underemployment, and
continuing pervasive corruption in 1993. Subsistence
agriculture, traditionally the main source of income for the
majority of Angola's approximately 10 million citizens, was
severely affected by war-related damage, including heavy use of
land mines by both the Government and UNITA.
Human rights in Angola deteriorated in 1993 in the face of
heightened civil war brutalities and the absence of government
and UNITA actions to curb egregious violations of humanitarian
law. Media, eyewitness, and international community reports
indicated that UNITA forces, government military, and internal
security forces flagrantly disregarded fundamental humanitarian
values in their treatment of prisoners of war, their
extrajudicial killings of unarmed civilians, including women,
children and the elderly, and their impediments to delivery of
humanitarian assistance to civilians in dire need.
The Government detained prisoners accused of political and
other crimes for indeterminate periods of time under inhumane
conditions and without due process of law, according to a
persuasive report published by the Human Rights Subcommittee of
the National Assembly. UNITA held foreign hostages in Jamba,
Huambo, and other areas under its control. The media published
credible allegations of UNITA "ethnic cleansing" in Uige
Province bordering Zaire. There were substantiated reports of
government reprisals against Zairians resident in Luanda
suburbs, as well as "cleansing" during military operations.
Despite the overall deterioriation in the human rights
situation, there were a few isolated improvements. Throughout
the year the Government continued to release political
prisoners. The Government permitted the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) to visit UNITA prisoners in
all but one facility. The electronic and print media were
increasingly free to criticize human rights infractions.
RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including
Freedom from:
a. Political and other Extrajudicial Killing
Journalists credibly reported that government forces brutally
interrogated and killed suspected UNITA sympathizers in
Benguela Province. Eyewitnesses reported that police in Huila
Province killed unarmed civilians indiscriminately. In a wave
of violence in January, police and armed civilians targeted
suspected UNITA supporters who "disappeared" or were killed.
As the war continued, common criminal violence became
indistinguishable from political violence. Fighting between
members of the military and police and among military, police,
and bandits in a large open air market on the outskirts of
Luanda regularly resulted in fatalities.
Media and eyewitness reports noted that UNITA forces ambushed a
civilian train in Huila Province in May, resulting in a large
number of casualties. The first 140 victims, mainly women and
young children, were buried in a mass grave at the site of the
attack. Many more died en route to or at the hospital in
Lubango. In August UNITA soldiers attacked three trucks that
had left a World Food Program humanitarian relief convoy and
killed three truckers. Subsequently, a policeman was killed as
he examined the booby-trapped corpse of one of the truckers.
The following month eyewitnesses reported that UNITA forces
killed and disemboweled unarmed civilians in Bengo Province.
b. Disappearance
Both government and UNITA officials reported incidents of
abduction and disappearance. The Government accused UNITA of
abducting and killing civilians.
A considerable number of UNITA adherents remained missing from
January conflicts in Huila and Namibe Provinces. The ICRC
indicated that despite government cooperation, efforts to trace
the missing failed because UNITA discouraged family members
from revealing information to the ICRC. The bodies of some of
the missing were reportedly burned.
In 1993 the Government allowed the ICRC to visit all UNITA
prisoners throughout the country with the exception of the 19
people held in the "Laboratorio" in Luanda from mid-March to
mid-May. The Laboratorio was known as the Ministry of
Interior's high-security interrogation facility where torture
was allegedly used.
The Government, with financial support from international
nongovernmental organizations, employed the mass media and
provincial government resources to search for family members of
orphans and abandoned children.
c. Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment
The Government and the National Assembly Subcommittee on Human
Rights acknowledged that conditions in Angola's prisons were
inhuman. Many prisons, lacking financial support from the
Government, are unable to supply prisoners with food and
medicine, and prisoners are thus forced to depend on
international relief organizations and their families and
friends. The Government allowed subcommittee personnel, as
well as the ICRC, access to all prisons except the Laboratorio
in Luanda.
According to credible reports government personnel tortured
detainees at the Laboratorio, holding them incommunicado for
months with a daily ration of two spoons of rice and one half
liter of dirty water. If interrogators were not satisfied with
the information they were being given, detainees were taken
unclothed to a cement cell, approximately the size of a large
telephone booth with no windows, and for 10 minutes at a time
subjected to electric shocks. Reportedly, at the end of these
sessions they could not see, stand, or walk unassisted for
several hours. There were credible eyewitness reports of the
debilitated physical and mental condition of UNITA members upon
their release from that facility.
In January there were credible reports that UNITA forces in
Uige mutilated unarmed civilians.
In March accounts emerged, reinforced by a video tape, of an
incident at Huambo where government forces were accused of
using a shield of women and children hostages to cover their
retreat. Government sources claim that the women and children
accompanying the government forces had sought their protection.
In September first-hand media accounts reported that government
forces in Benguela Province beat and shot UNITA prisoners in
the legs and feet so that they would not run away.
Also, in September Portuguese television alleged that armed
elements of a faction of the Enclave of Cabinda Liberation
Front (FLEC), a separatist group in Cabinda Province, had cut
off ears, noses, and lips of unarmed civilians.
d. Arbitrary Arrest, Detention, or Exile
In 1993 the Government mandated the transfer of the judicial
process and prison system portfolios from the Interior Ministry
to the Justice Ministry, but the law was not scheduled to be
implemented until 1994. During 1993 the Interior Ministry
systematically, arbitrarily, and secretly detained individuals
for all categories of crime, without trial, for indeterminate
periods of time. Detainees had no rights. Persons detained in
the Laboratorio were held incommunicado.
In January the ICRC reported that there were 1,100 known UNITA
sympathizers under government detention in Luanda. They had
all been released by the end of the year and reintegrated into
Angolan society.
At mid-year UNITA held 287 known prisoners in the north; no
statistics were available for late in the year. Throughout the
first half of 1993, UNITA prevented the evacuation from Huambo
and other UNITA-held areas of more than 400 foreigners trapped
by renewed fighting. These hostages had all been released by
year's end.
e. Denial of Fair Public Trial
In October 1991, the Code for Penal Process was amended to
bring Angola's judicial system in line with international
norms; it guarantees a public trial, establishes a system of
bail, and recognizes the accused's right to counsel and to
testify.
The court system is comprised of municipal and provincial
courts (the latter under the authority of the Ministry of
Justice) of original jurisdiction and a Supreme Court at the
appellate level. Although the 1992 Law on Constitutional
Revision speaks of an independent judiciary, as does the 1991
amended Constitution, the President of the Republic appoints
the Supreme Court judges (for life terms), and no National
Assembly confirmation is required. Despite legal safeguards
provided by law, significant shortcomings in the administration
of justice persisted in 1993 and the Interior Ministry
frequently did not respect due process of law in its arrest and
detention procedures.
Municipal courts normally deal with summary cases on a daily
basis. Judges are normally respected laymen, not licensed
lawyers. Provincial courts, under the authority of the
Ministry of Justice, are located in the 18 provincial
capitals. Judges are nominated by the Supreme Court and
attorneys general by the Attorney General of the Republic.
Cases are divided into four categories: criminal, civil and
administrative, family, and labor.
The judge and two laymen selected by the court are to act as
jury. Normally cases are dispatched by a court within 3
months. The verdict is to be pronounced the day following the
conclusion of the trial, in the presence of the defendant.
The Supreme Court has a total of 16 judges, all of whom are
appointed by the President of the Republic upon recommendation
by the Association of Magistrates. In 1993 only 9 of the 16
positions were filled. Cases are divided into two categories:
criminal, and civil and administrative.
A person caught in the act of a crime can be arrested and
detained immediately. Otherwise, arrests are supposed to be
made openly, with a warrant signed by a judge or a provincial
attorney general. Following arrest, the attorney general is
supposed to release to the public the grounds for arrest before
forwarding a case for trail. The prosecuting attorney and
defense attorney have a maximum of 90 days to prepare a case.
Detainees are to be allowed prompt access to family members and
a lawyer.
In 1993 the Interior Ministry failed to respect due process of
law in its arrest and detention procedures. Although the 1992
Law on Constitutional Revision calls for an independent
judiciary and a constitutional tribunal, this tribunal has not
yet been established. Both the Ministry of Justice and the
National Assembly called for modernizing laws and enshrining
basic legal rights, but practice has not yet caught up with
these intentions.
There is no evidence that UNITA has set up a judicial system
responsive to international judicial norms.
f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or
Correspondence
There were no known specific complaints about arbitrary
interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence.
However, it was widely thought that the Government continued
surveillance of certain categories of people, such as the UNITA
National Assembly deputies.
g. Use of Excessive Force and Violations of Humanitarian
Law in Internal Conflicts
UNITA forces continued to attack and capture municipalities
throughout the country in 1993, destroying infrastructure,
including dams, bridges, electrical pylons, orphanages,
schools, hospitals, and medical facilities.
In January the oil town of Soyo changed hands several times but
ultimately fell under UNITA's control. In March UNITA, after
55 days of siege, expelled government forces from Huambo,
Angola's second largest city. The death toll in this battle
was estimated at 15,000, mostly civilians. Government forces
were able to retake much of Benguela, Huila, and Bengo
Provinces in August.
There were credible allegations that both the Government and
UNITA engaged in indiscriminate killing of civilians and
summary executions of prisoners of war. Both sides impeded
provision of emergency relief supplies and assistance by the
ICRC, nongovernmental voluntary organizations, and United
Nations agencies. In UNITA-held Huambo, CARE International
officials, visiting in June, described looting of supplies and
confiscation of equipment by UNITA officials. In March UNITA
sacked an orphanage outside Luanda. In August UNITA attacked a
World Food Program convoy. As many as 30,000 people died
during UNITA's siege of the city of Cuito, including 30 to 40
children each day who died of malnutrition. UNITA allowed only
Portuguese and other foreigners to leave Cuito in September,
and continued to prevent local residents from fleeing.
More than 20,000 Angolans have suffered amputation due to land
mines. Credible sources including eyewitnesses reported that
both sides conscripted young teenagers into military service
(see also Section 1.c.).
Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including:
a. Freedom of Speech and Press
Angola's 1991 Constitution provides for freedom of expression,
which was largely respected in 1993. Although the Government
continues to own the press, there were editorials, articles,
and cartoons critical of the Government's prosecution of the
war and its failure to respond to Angola's worsening economic
and social crises. Opinions of political opposition leaders,
businesspeople, and National Assembly deputies critical of the
Government on issues such as human rights also routinely
appeared on national radio and television.
Foreign journalists register with the Government Press Center
for access to officials and are permitted travel within Angola,
although at times the conflict made this difficult. Both the
Government and UNITA invited journalists to planned press
events and to visit areas under their control.
The Angolan Journalists Union (SJA) alleged in 1993 that the
Government continued to restrict press freedom, including
access to controversial public figures. The SJA also accused
the Government of blocking its attempts to gain information on
the murder of two Angolan journalists in Lobito in May. The
results of the police investigation had not been made public at
year's end.
b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association
The Constitution guarantees the right of peaceful assembly and
association, provided a 3-day notice is given to the
authorities. In 1993, however, the war, increased violent
crime, and a precarious security situation in urban areas
discouraged normal civic assembly and association activities.
There were no known violations of the right of assembly by the
authorities.
Regulations allow the Government to deny required registration
to private associations on security grounds. There were no
known instances of such denials in 1993.
UNITA did not tolerate traditional assembly and association in
areas under its control.
c. Freedom of Religion
Religion plays an important role in Angolan society; some 85
percent of the population is either Roman Catholic or
Protestant; the rest is animist. There is separation of church
and state. Freedom of religion is provided for in the
Constitution and is accorded in practice. All religious sects
are welcome in Angola, and links may be maintained with
coreligionists in other countries.
d. Freedom of Movement Within the Country, Foreign
Travel, Emigration, and Repatriation
The civil war inhibited freedom of movement within the
country. However, according to U.N. statistics, over a million
people escaped to government-controlled territory from the
interior just ahead of UNITA's advancing troops. At the end of
1993, there were reportedly 2 million displaced persons who had
fled from warfare in the countryside. However, wartime
conditions prevented physical access to many areas of the
country by humanitarian organizations and a precise number of
persons severely affected by the war remained unavailable.
Citizens have the right to change residence and workplace, but
the scarcity of habitable dwellings as well as the massive
unemployment and underemployment effectively impeded most
voluntary changes.
The Government denied permission to travel abroad to UNITA
National Assembly deputies following the defection of the first
two well-known UNITA personalities who were authorized to
depart Angola. The Government made it difficult for other
opposition party members to travel abroad during legislative
recess by limiting their access to requisite foreign exchange.
MPLA deputies had access to foreign exchange at favorable rates.
Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens
to Change Their Government
The Angolan people for the first time exercised their
constitutional right to change their government through
peaceful means in the October 1992 presidential elections. The
17-year civil war resumed in late October 1992 when UNITA
rejected the election results. A second round of presidential
elections was postponed indefinitely. The resumption of the
war slowed the democratization process significantly.
Consequently, and despite the elections, governmental power
remained in the hands of a small MPLA elite.
Guidelines for local government elections, scheduled to take
place 2 years after democratic presidential and legislative
elections, were elaborated and placed before the Council of
Ministers. However, the Council did not act on the guidelines
because of the war.
The National Assembly consists of 130 deputies elected on a
national basis and 90 elected to represent the provinces. The
MPLA-dominated Assembly was active during 1993, convoking
members of the Government publicly to explain policies on a
wide range of issues, including human rights and the economy.
The Assembly passed, and the President promulgated, laws on
human rights, the judicial system, military service, ethics and
conduct of Assembly deputies, and national defense.
Women occupied 32 of the 220 National Assembly seats. One of
the nine Supreme Court judges is a woman.
Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and
Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations
of Human Rights
Because UNITA controlled most of Angola's national territory,
the Government had little influence on investigations of human
rights abuses in most of the country.
There were no functioning Angolan nongovernmental human rights
associations or groups. The two national human rights groups,
the Angolan Human Rights Nucleus and the Angolan Human Rights
Association, were inactive in 1993 due to inexperienced
leadership and financial difficulties.
A newly established Human Rights Subcommittee in the
MPLA-dominated Parliament was active. Representatives from 11
opposition parties participated in National Assembly debate.
The Attorney General and Justice Minister were called to
testify before the National Assembly eight times on human
rights issues.
The Government allowed the ICRC and members of the Human Rights
Subcommittee of the National Assembly to visit all political
prisoners and prisons with the exception of those held in the
Laboratorio in Luanda. At the conclusion of the Assembly's
first session, the Subcommittee published a report critical of
the Government, noting that there were laws to protect human
rights but no mechanisms to enforce the laws. It also noted
the abysmal condition of the prisons and the lack of due
process.
UNITA did not allow international organizations access to most
of the territory under its control. Among the few exceptions
were Lutheran World Federation activities in Cazombo (Moxico
province) and the Lundas; UNHCR activities in Uige; and
Medecins Sans Frontieres in Uige and Huambo. UNITA cooperated
with the ICRC regarding visitation of prisoners and hostages in
Huambo and in the evacuation of 415 foreigners from UNITA-held
territory. However, UNITA's confrontational relationship with
international organizations was further tarnished by shooting
incidents at M'Banza Congo, Uige, and Luena, when UNITA fired
on clearly marked, unarmed humanitarian assistance aircraft.
The incident in Luena resulted in one death.
The Government permitted relatively unrestricted access to
UNITA-besieged cities, spent considerable sums on airdrops of
food to the city of Cuito, and subsidized the international
humanitarian assistance effort throughout Angola by providing
extremely cheap fuel. However, the Government steadfastly
blocked attempts by international organizations to provide
humanitarian assistance to Huambo.
Section 5 Discrimination Based on Race, Sex, Religion,
Disability, Language, or Social Status
Angolan law stipulates that all citizens are equal regardless
of race, ethnic origin, sex, religion or, social status. The
International Labor Organization's (ILO) Committee of Experts
has noted that this law omits reference to political opinion.
Angola is a multiracial society, and in practice there was
little evidence of official discrimination.
Women
Women held senior positions in the military (primarily in the
medical field), civil service, and political parties. The
media occasionally addressed women's issues. The law proclaims
equal pay for equal work, but in practice women were not
compensated equally. Adult women can open a bank account,
accept employment, and own property without interference from
their spouse.
Little information was available on the extent of violence
against women, but it is believed to be widespread. The number
of assault cases brought by women to courts appeared to be
increasing. In many besieged cities, women swelled the ranks
of the handicapped because when they foraged in the fields in
search for food to feed their family, they often set off land
mines. Due to dire economic circumstances, increasing numbers
of women engage in prostitution. The clergy reports that
marriages are breaking down at an alarming rate.
Children
The growing presence of street children in Luanda and other
cities indicates a breakdown in Angola's family institutions
caused by the war and the deteriorating economy. Young females
were accepted into private homes to become domestics while
young males roamed the market places and streets. The living
conditions in government youth hostels were so inhuman the
dispossessed chose to sleep on city streets. There were no
active private children's rights advocacy groups. The
government-sponsored National Institute for Children was viewed
as an MPLA organ and was inadequate to address the magnitude of
the problem.
The extent to which female genital mutilation is practiced
cannot be verified. However, medical authorities say that it
may have occurred in limited fashion in remote areas of Moxico
province, bordering Zaire and Zambia.
Indigenous People
Angola's population includes 1 to 2 percent of pre-Bantu stock
indigenous peoples. Mostly hunters and gatherers, these
Khoisan and other linguistic groups are scattered throughout
the southern provinces of Namibe, Cunene, and Cuando Cubango.
There was no evidence that they suffered from official
discrimination or harassment, but they do not participate
actively in the political or economic life of the country and
their ability to influence government decisions concerning
their interests is marginal at best.
National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities
The long civil conflict has deep ethnic and urban versus rural
roots. The MPLA is heavily supported by the Mbundu ethnic
group, which makes up an estimated 25 percent of the
population, and by many city dwellers, notably in Luanda. It
also has strong backing among the small number of white and
mixed-race Angolans who occupy technical and governmental
positions. Election results indicated a high level of support
among other ethnic groups apart from the Ovimbundu. UNITA has
its principal backing among the country's largest single ethnic
group, the Ovimbundu, who make up an estimated 37 percent of
the population and are concentrated in the central and southern
parts of Angola. The Government continued to claim that
inflammatory UNITA rhetoric exacerbated ethnic tensions by
dwelling on the perceived colonial ties of white and mixed-race
Angolans.
Foreigners resident in Angola were not immune to deadly
violence. In January mobs in Luanda, angered by allegations
that Zaire was helping UNITA, went on a rampage of rape,
lynching, and arson against Zaireans and others thought to be
Zairians. As many as 60 persons perished.
People with Disabilities
There are many physically disabled individuals throughout
Angola, the majority of whom are casualties of land mines and
other war-related injuries. While there was no obvious
discrimination against them, the Government did little to
ameliorate their physical, financial, or social distress.
Physical access for the disabled to public buildings is not
mandated.
Section 6 Worker Rights
a. The Right of Association
The 1991 Constitution recognizes the right of Angolans to form
trade unions and to bargain collectively. However, the law
governing unions has yet to be passed.
Organized labor is concentrated in the cities. There is no
organized labor in agriculture, traditionally the main source
of income for the majority of Angolans.
The National Union of Angolan Workers (UNTA), the official
labor union of the ruling MPLA, remained the principal workers'
organization. Two other groups without affiliation to a
political party, the National Confederation of Free Trade
Unions of Angola and the Democratic Confederation of Angolan
Workers, waited in the wings for peace and the new labor union
law. The war, the Government's mismanagement of the economy,
and the lack of necessary legislation effectively stifled these
two organizations. The Union of Angolan Journalists, formed in
1992, was active, respected, and was not harassed by the
Government.
The Constitution provides for the right to strike. Legislation
passed in 1991 provides the legal framework to strike. The law
prohibits lockouts and worker occupation of places of
employment, and provides protection for nonstriking workers.
Strikes by military and police personnel, prison workers, and
firemen are prohibited.
There were strikes against the Government in 1993 by private
fishermen obliged to register at the Ministry of Fisheries, and
by employees of the state-owned cement factory. Settlements of
strikes were negotiated expeditiously.
Laws which allow free labor organizations to affiliate with
international labor bodies have not been enacted. UNTA, the
MPLA labor union, is affiliated with the Organization of
African Trade Union Unity and the formerly Soviet-controlled
World Federation of Trade Unions. The new Angolan free trade
union federations expect to apply for membership in the
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions as soon as
relevant domestic legislation is enacted.
b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
Angolan workers have the constitutional right to organize and
bargain collectively; discrimination against union members is
prohibited.
However, in 1993 the Ministry of Labor and Social Security
continued to set wages and benefits on an annual basis.
Salaries for public servants were set at the Minister's
discretion; salaries of employees of state-owned enterprises
were based on profits of the previous year and available loans
from the National Bank. Loans were predicated on profit
margins and on the percentage of government ownership. In
Angola's small private sector, wages are based on multiples of
the minimum salary set by the Government.
Angola has no export processing zones.
c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The Government indicated that in mid-1994 it would introduce
legislation to prohibit forced labor, reversing laws and
provisions which had been cited by the ILO for violations of
its Convention No. 105. The outdated legislation authorizes
forced labor for breaches of worker discipline and
participation in strikes.
d. Minimum Age for Employment of Children
The legal minimum age for employment is 14. The Inspector
General of the Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcing
labor laws. The Labor Ministry maintains employment centers
where prospective employees register. These centers screen out
applicants under the age of 14. However, children at a much
younger age work on family farms and in the informal economy.
e. Acceptable Conditions of Work
In 1993 the Council of Ministers approved a minimum salary for
laborers equivalent to $7 per month (by the end of the year
reduced to $2 by hyperinflation) and for civil servants a
minimum salary equivalent to $137 per month (reduced to $40).
The minimum salary was insufficient to support a worker and
family. Accordingly, most workers depended on the thriving
informal sector, second jobs at night, subsistence farming
where security permits, theft, corruption, or remittances from
abroad to maintain an acceptable standard of living. The
normal workweek, established by a 1982 government decree, is 44
hours. No information was available on adequacy of work
conditions or health standards, but it was assumed they were
generally low, given the extreme underdevelopment of the
Angolan economy, lack of enforcement mechanisms, and the war.
(###)
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