Background Notes: United Kingdom
PA/PC
Source: Office of Public Communication, Bureau of Public
Affairs
Date: Oct 15, 199010/15/90
Category: Country Data
Region: Europe
Country: United Kingdom
Subject: Cultural Exchange, Resource Management,
Military Affairs, Trade/Economics, History,
International Organizations
[TEXT]
Official Name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
PROFILE
Geography
Area: 244,111 sq. km. (94,251 sq. mi.); slightly smaller than Oregon.
Cities: Capital-London (metropolitan pop. about 6.7 million. Other
cities-Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds, Sheffield, Liverpool, Bradford,
Manchester, Edinburgh, Bristol, Belfast. Terrain: 30% arable, 50%
meadow and pasture, 12% waste or urban, 7% forested, 1% inland
water. Climate: Generally mild and temperate; weather is subject to
frequent changes but to few extremes of temperature.
People
Nationality: Noun-Briton(s). Adjective-British. Population (1989):
58 million. Annual growth rate: 1%. Ethnic groups: British, West
Indian, South Asian. Religions: Church of England, Roman Catholic,
Presbyterian. Languages: English, Welsh, Gaelic. Education: Years
compulsory-12. Attendance-nearly 100%. Literacy-99%. Health:
Infant mortality rate-13.3/1,000. Life expectancy-males 70 yrs.,
females 76 yrs. Work force (about 28 million in 1988): Agriculture-
1.7%. Manufacturing and engineering-26.4%. Construction-4.8%.
Mining and energy-3.1%. Services-64%.
Government
Type: Constitutional monarchy. Constitution: Unwritten; partly
statutes, partly common law and practice. Branches: Executive-
monarch (chief of state), prime minister (head of government),
cabinet. Legislative-bicameral Parliament: House of Commons,
House of Lords. Judicial-magistrates' courts, county courts, high
courts, appellate courts, House of Lords. Subdivisions:
Municipalities, counties, parliamentary constituencies, province of
Northern Ireland, and Scottish regions. Political parties:
Conservative; Labor; Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD); Social
Democrats (SDP); and various smaller parties including the Greens
and parties of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Suffrage:
British subjects and citizens of the Irish Republic resident in the
UK, 18 yrs. or older. Government budget (1989): Expenditures- $283
billion. Revenue-$293 billion. Flag: The red, white, and blue Union
Jack combines crosses of the patron saints of England (St. George),
Scotland (St. Andrew), and Ireland (St. Patrick). Economy GDP
(1989): $843 billion. Annual growth rate (1989): 23%. Per capita
GDP (1989): $14,535. Avg. inflation rate (1989): 9.2%. Natural
resources: Coal, oil, gas (North Sea). Agriculture (1.5% of GDP
1988): Products-cereals, livestock, livestock products, fish.
Industry (34.4% of GDP): Types-steel, heavy engineering and metal
manufacturing, textiles, motor vehicles and aircraft, construction,
electronics, chemicals. Trade (1989): Exports (f.o.b.)-$153 billion:
machinery and transport equipment, petroleum, manufactures,
chemicals. Major markets-EC, US, Sweden, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria,
Switzerland, South Africa. Imports (c.i.f.)-$198 billion: machinery
and transport equipment, manufactures, foodstuffs, petroleum,
chemicals. Major suppliers-EC, US, Japan, Norway, Sweden,
Switzerland. Exchange rate (1989 average): 1 UK=US $1.64 Fiscal
year: April 1-March 31.
Membership in International Organizations
UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO), European Community (EC), Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), INTELSAT.
PEOPLE
In 1989, the United Kingdom's population was estimated at 58
million-the fourth largest in Europe after the Soviet Union,
Germany, and Italy-and its population density is one of the highest
in the world. Almost one-third of the population lives in England's
prosperous and fertile southeast and is predominantly urban and
suburban. The UK's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to the
introduction of public primary education in 1870 and secondary
education in 1900. Education is mandatory from ages 5 through 16.
The Church of England (Episcopal) is the largest church, but
virtually all religions and sects found in the world are represented
in the UK. A group of islands close to continental Europe, the United
Kingdom has been subject to many invasions and migrations,
especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman
occupation for several centuries. The contemporary Briton is
descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there
before the end of the 11th century. Under the Normans-Scandinavian
Vikings who had settled in northern France-the pre-Celtic, Celtic,
Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended into the
present Briton. Although the Celtic languages persist to a small
degree in Northern Ireland, Wales, and Scotland, the predominant
language has long been English, a blend of Anglo-Saxon and Norman-
French.
HISTORY
The Roman invasion of Britain in BC 55 and its subsequent
incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated development and
brought more active contacts with the rest of Europe. As Rome's
strength declined, the country was exposed to invasion, including
the pivotal invasions of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the fifth
and sixth centuries AD, until the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman
rule effectively ensured Britain's safety from further invasion and
stimulated the development of characteristic British institutions.
Among these institutions are a political, administrative, cultural,
and economic center in London; the development of a separate but
established church; a system of common law; distinctive and
distinguished university education; and representative government.
Union
Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms which
fiercely resisted English rule. The English conquest of Wales
succeeded in 1282 under Edward I, and the Statute of Rhuddlan
established English rule 2 years later. To appease the Welsh,
Edward's son (later Edward II), who had been born in Wales, was
made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of bestowing this title
on the eldest son of the British monarch continues today. An act of
1536 completed the political and administrative union of England
and Wales. England and Scotland were united under one crown in
1603, when James VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I
as James I of England. In the ensuing 100 years, strong religious and
political differences divided the kingdoms. Finally, in 1707, England
and Scotland agreed to permanent union as Great Britain with the
Union Jack as the national flag. The Anglo-Norman invasion of
Ireland in 1170 began centuries of strife. Successive English kings
sought to impose their will on the Irish, whose cause was finally
defeated in the early 17th century, when large-scale settlement of
the north from Scotland and England also began. After this defeat,
Ireland was subjected, with varying degrees of success, to control
and regulation by Britain. The legislative union of Great Britain and
Ireland was completed on January 1, 1801, under the name of the
United Kingdom. However, armed struggle for political independence
continued sporadically into the 20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty
of 1921 established the Irish Free State, which left the
Commonwealth and became a republic after World War II. Six
northern, predominantly Protestant Irish counties have remained
part of the United Kingdom.
British Expansion and Empire
Begun initially to support William the Conqueror's (c. 1029-
1087) holdings in France, Britain's policy of active involvement in
European affairs endured for several hundred years. By the end of
the 14th century, foreign trade, originally based on wool exports to
Europe, had emerged as a cornerstone of national policy. The
foundations of sea power were gradually laid to protect British
trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the Spanish Armada in
1588 firmly established Britain as a major sea power. Thereafter,
its interests outside Europe grew steadily. Attracted by the spice
trade, British mercantile interests spread first to the Far East. In
search of an alternate route to the Spice Islands, John Cabot
reached the North American continent in 1498. Sir Walter Raleigh
organized the first, short-lived British colony in Virginia in 1584,
and permanent British settlement began in 1607 at Jamestown,
Virginia. During the next two centuries, Britain extended its
influence abroad and consolidated its political development at
home. The territorial foundation of the 20th-century British Empire,
minus parts of Africa and India, had already been laid by the time of
the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Great Britain's industrial revolution
greatly strengthened its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the
end of the Napoleonic wars in 1815, the United Kingdom was the
foremost European power and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in
Europe allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote
parts of the world and during this period, the British Empire
reached its zenith. British colonies, effectively managed,
contributed to the United Kingdom's extraordinary economic growth
and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even as the United
Kingdom became more imperial abroad, it continued to develop and
broaden its democratic institutions at home. 20th Century By the
time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901 other nations, including the
United States and Germany, had developed their own industries; the
United Kingdom's comparative economic advantage had lessened, and
the ambitions of its rivals had grown. The losses and destruction of
World War I, the depression of the l930s, and decades of relatively
slow growth made it difficult for the United Kingdom to maintain
its preeminent international position of the previous century.
Britain's control over its empire loosened during the interwar
period. Ireland, with the exception of six northern counties, broke
away from the United Kingdom in 1921. Nationalism became
stronger in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and
Egypt. In 1926, the United Kingdom, completing a process begun a
century earlier, granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand
complete autonomy within the empire. As such, they became charter
members of the British Commonwealth of Nations, an informal but
closely knit association that succeeded the empire. After 1947, the
remainder of the kingdom was dismantled. Most of its former
colonies now belong to the Commonwealth.1 Today, almost all of
Britain's former colonies have become independent members of the
Commonwealth. Although weakened by economic and political
nationalism, the Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice
in matters concerning many developing countries. In addition, the
Commonwealth helps to preserve many institutions deriving from
British experience and models, such as parliamentary democracy, in
those countries.
GOVERNMENT
The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution. The
equivalent body of law is based on statute, common law, and
"traditional rights." Changes may come about formally through new
acts of Parliament, informally through the acceptance of new
practices and usage, or by judicial precedents. Although Parliament
has the theoretical power to make or unmake any law, in actual
practice, the weight of 700 years of tradition restrains arbitrary
actions. Executive government rests nominally with the monarch but
actually is exercised by a committee of ministers (cabinet)
traditionally selected from among the members of the House of
Commons and, to a lesser extent, the House of Lords. The prime
minister is the leader of the majority party in the Commons, and
the government is dependent on its support.
Parliament represents the entire country and can legislate for
the whole or for any constituent part or combination of parts. The
maximum parliamentary term is 5 years, but the prime minister
may ask the monarch to dissolve Parliament and call a general
election at any time. The focus of legislative power is the 650-
member House of Commons, which has sole jurisdiction over
finance. The House of Lords, although shorn of most of its powers,
can still review, amend, or delay temporarily any bills except those
relating to the budget. Only a few of the 1,200 members of the
House of Lords attend its sessions regularly. The House of Lords has
more time than the House of Commons to pursue one of its more
important functions-debating public issues.
The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive
branches but cannot review the constitutionality of legislation. The
separate identity of each of the UK's constituent parts also is
reflected in governmental structure. Welsh affairs are handled at
the national level by a cabinet minister (the Secretary of State for
Wales) with the advice of a broadly representative council for
Wales. Scotland continues, as before the union, to employ different
systems of law (Roman-French), education, local government,
judiciary, and national church (the Presbyterian Church of Scotland
instead of the Church of England). In addition, most domestic
matters are handled by separate departments grouped under a
Secretary of State for Scotland, who also is a cabinet member.
Although the British government retained ultimate responsibility,
Northern Ireland had its own parliament and prime minister until it
was suspended in March 1972. Then, in response to deteriorating
security and political conditions in the province, direct rule from
London was established through a Secretary of State for Northern
Ireland. Northern Ireland is represented by 17 members in the
House of Commons. The six counties of Northern Ireland comprise
about 900,000 Protestants and 600,000 Catholics. On November 15,
1985, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland signed the
Anglo-Irish agreement to diminish the divisions in Northern Ireland
and to achieve peace and stability. In the agreement, both
governments affirm that any change in Northern Ireland's status
will come about only with the consent of a majority of its people.
An intergovernmental conference was established, comprised of
representatives from both governments and concerned with the
problems in the north and the relations between the two parts of
the island. The conference deals with political, security, legal, and
cross-border cooperation issues and provides for possible future
devolution of responsibility for some matters within Northern
Ireland. The British and Irish governments also cooperate in
promoting economic and social development in the unstable areas
and are seeking international support for this effort. As of 1989,
the United States has given or pledged contributions totaling $138
million to the International Fund for Ireland. The fund provides
grants and loans to businesses to improve the economy, redress
inequalities of employment opportunity, and improve cross-border
business and commercial ties.
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government-elected in May
1979, and re-elected in June 1983 and June 1987-dominates the
British political scene. The Conservatives, or Tories, now hold 375
seats-for a commanding 100-vote majority-in the 650-member
House of Commons (in addition, the non-voting Speaker of the House
is a Conservative member of Parliament). In its first two terms,
the Thatcher government's program included efforts to curb the
power of the unions, reduce inflation, and privatize nationally
owned industries. The third term program includes reform of local
government finance by replacing "rates" (essentially real estate
taxes) with a universal community charge (dubbed the "poll tax"),
educational reform, National Health Service and legal system
reforms, and privatization of electricity and water. The Labor Party
holds 228 seats in the House of Commons. Under Neil Kinnock, the
official leader of the opposition, the Labor Party has challenged
most government initiatives, running in 1983 and 1987 on
platforms calling for renationalization of certain industries,
unilateral British nuclear disarmament, and greater government
spending on social programs and the National Health Service.
Following its third consecutive general election defeat, the Labor
Party embarked on a major review of its policies, which resulted in
a move away from unilateral nuclear disarmament. The centrist
Alliance, composed of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the
Liberal Party, won 23% of the vote in the 1987 general election.
Because of the UK's single-member-constituency, winner-take-all
voting system, however, the Alliance won only 22 seats in the
House of Commons. Following the election, Liberal Party leaders and
some SDP leaders called for a formal merger of the two parties.
Other Social Democrats, under SDP leader David Owen, opted to
remain independent. In 1988, the Alliance was dissolved, and the
"mergerites" formed a new party, the Social and Liberal Democrats
(SLD). It holds 19 seats in Parliament. The separate SDP under
Owen has three members of Parliament. Both the SLD and the SDP
favor the introduction of proportional representation. Proposals
have been floated for an electoral arrangement between the SLD and
the SDP whereby only one of the parties would offer a candidate in
each constituency. No agreement has yet been reached. Of the
remaining 24 seats in the House of Commons, Northern Ireland
parties fill 17, the Scottish nationalists 4 (including a seat taken
from Labor in a by-election), and the Welsh nationalists 3. The next
general election must be held by June 1992.
ECONOMY
The United Kingdom is one of the largest European economies
and one of the world's great trading powers. As an international
financial center, London is as yet unrivaled. Although economic
growth increased markedly in the 25 years following the end of
World War II, the rate of growth was much slower than that of most
other European industrial countries. Between 1950 and 1970, the
United Kingdom dropped from having the highest per capita income
in Europe to being ahead of only Ireland and Italy among the
European Community (EC) countries when the United Kingdom joined
in 1973. During the 1970s, the economic growth rate slowed even
more, as did those of most industrial countries. From the depths of
the 1979-81 recession, the British economy has made some
impressive gains. The current expansion, starting in 1981, is the
longest period of continuous economic growth in the last 30 years.
Inflation averaged more than 14% per year during 1979-81. In
1986, it was 3%, but 9% in 1989. During the recession, industrial
production fell by almost 10% but has since recovered. Real
economic growth in 1989 was 2.3%, depending on the measure used.
In some respects, however, the UK economy has not completely
recovered from the recession of the early 1980s. The
unemployment rate, which stood at just over 5% in 1979, grew to
more than 13% in 1986. It is now 6.5%. Although manufacturing
output dropped 14% from 1979 to 1981, by 1987 it had fully
recovered and continues to grow rapidly. Strong domestic demand
and rapid growth in income has contributed to a trade deficit.
Exports of goods and services grew slowly in 1989-by 5% on a
volume basis-while imports have grown strongly by more than 8%.
As a result, the current account is in deficit by more than $34
billion. The Conservatives' economic goals are to reduce the role of
the government in the economy, moderate the growth of the money
supply, and remove structural rigidities in the proper functioning of
markets. The government has privatized most large state-owned
companies, including British Telecom, British Aerospace, Rover, and
British Gas. The electricity and water companies are now being
privatized. The United Kingdom and the United States have
important economic ties. Britain is the United States' largest
trading partner in the EC. Next to Canada, it is the largest recipient
of US foreign direct investment. Britain is the largest source of
foreign direct investment in the United States with nearly $100
billion invested there at the end of 1989.
Agriculture and Industry
Agriculture in the United Kingdom is intensive, highly
mechanized, and efficient by European standards but produces only
about 57% of Britain's food requirements because of climatic
factors. Only 2.3% of the work force is engaged in farming.
Livestock and dairy farming account for the greater part of
production. British industry is a mixture of publicly and privately
owned firms. Several important industries are publicly owned-
steel, railroads, coal mining, shipbuilding, and certain utilities.
Since 1979, the British Government has sold off a number of
companies as part of its privatization program. Government
agencies primarily responsible for economic policy are the Treasury
and the Departments of Trade and Industry, Energy, and Employment.
The Confederation of British Industry is the central body
representing British industry, serving as an important
communications channel between government and industry.
Energy Sources
The United Kingdom is an energy-rich nation with large coal
resources, although much of that is now high cost. It also has
significant reserves of oil and gas in the North Sea. Primary energy
production accounts for about 6% of the United Kingdom's gross
domestic product, among the highest of any industrial nation. The
rapid development of North Sea oil converted the United Kingdom in
10 years (1973-83) from an importer of almost all of its petroleum
requirements into a major oil producer-about 2.2 million barrels
per day (b/d) in 1989, and a net exporter-just under 1 million b/d.
Although North Sea production may now have reached its peak, the
area should be an important source of continued production and new
discoveries for many years. In fact, some studies suggest that in
the mid-1990s Britain could be producing more than 2 million b/d.
US oil and oil-service companies actively participate in the North
Sea oil industry and consider the United Kingdom an attractive
environment for future investment.
Labor
In September 1988, the United Kingdom had an employed
workforce of 22 million, plus 3 million self-employed, out of a
total working population of 28 million. The major change in the
British labor market in the 1980s has been the growth in female
employment, particularly part time. Such employment grew by more
than 1 million between 1983 and 1989, and self-employment for
women grew by a further 250,000. In contrast, total male
employment increased by just 2,000 during the same period. Of the
new jobs taken by women, 650,000 involved part-time work, and
the majority were created in service industries. By late 1989, 10.9
million workers were members of a trade union. The Trade Union
Congress (TUC), the major trade union federation, accounted for
9.25 million workers organized in 87 independent unions. The
remaining 1.29 million workers belonged to 248 small associations.
The total unionized population has fallen from a 1978 figure of 13.3
million mirroring the decline of traditional industries. Although
women make up 46% of the work force, they are predominantly
employed in industries with a low level of trade union activity. As
a result, only 30% of the members of TUC-affiliated unions are
female. However, four UK unions are led by women, including the
Society of Graphical and Allied Trades which has 200,000 members.
Two unions that have reversed the general trend of membership
decline-the banking, insurance, and finance union and the union of
shop, distributive, and allied trades-are recruiting among a
predominantly female work force. More than 50% of TUC-affiliated
union members contribute to political funds that are channeled
mainly into the Labor Party. Unions affiliated to the Labor Party
may sponsor members of Parliament, take part in the selection of
candidates, and wield "bloc" votes at the party conference. In 1985,
legislation forced the unions to poll their members on the funds'
use. Ballots taken since then have shown an overwhelming majority
in favor of the retention of political funds. Unemployment in the
United Kingdom rose steadily between 1975 and 1986. In January
1987, it peaked at 3.3 million (12%) before seasonal adjustment but
gradually declined to 7.7 million (6.5%) by December 1989. More
than 40% of those had been unemployed for more than a year.
Unemployment levels vary regionally: Northern Ireland, with a
current unemployment rate of 17%, has a longstanding history of
high unemployment, while the more prosperous southeast region,
around London, had a 1989 rate of only 4%. Scotland (8.2%),
northwest England (10.8%), northern England (11%), Wales (10.5%),
and the Yorkshire area (9.5%) have unemployment rates above the
national average and are areas where traditional industrial
activities (e.g., coal mining, steel manufacturing, and shipbuilding)
have declined. British industrial relations in the 1970s and 1980s
have reflected the character of the trade unions' relationship with
the government. A prominent objective of the Conservative Party
was to reform industrial relations and make trade unions more
accountable to their members. Since 1979, labor legislation has
been introduced to limit the immunity from a court proceeding that
a trade union traditionally has enjoyed unless it conducts a secret
ballot before going on strike. The legislation also provides greater
protection for individual workers in disputes with their unions,
requires elections for union executives, and forces unions to poll
their members on the retention of political levies. The trade unions
disagree with much of the legislation and wish to have it amended.
During 1984-85, Britain lost a substantial number of working days
through strikes. The longest running dispute occurred in the mining
industry when the National Union of Mine-workers held a strike for
more than 1 year to oppose scheduled mine closures. Eventually, the
strike was defeated when miners returned to work without a
settlement and tacitly accepted the job losses. The bitterness
generated by the lengthy dispute will continue to influence labor
affairs for years to come. During the past several years, there has
been a considerable drop in the number of days lost through strikes,
which has been attributed in part to the high unemployment
extending through 1988. Concern for job security made many
workers cautious about risking their jobs-caution reinforced by the
1986 dismissal of 5,000 striking printworkers. Legislation that
placed restrictions on strike activity and imposed severe penalties
upon unions disregarding these restrictions, also helped reduce the
incidence of strikes.
Foreign Assistance
UK aid to developing countries includes loans and grants,
technical assistance, budgetary support, and contributions to
international agencies that provide financial aid and technical
assistance. Although the British aid program is global,
Commonwealth countries receive special attention. The major
recipients in recent years have been Africa and South Asia,
particularly India, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Pakistan, Sudan,
and Kenya. A growing share is channeled through multilateral
institutions. Total net official development assistance in 1989 was
$2 billion, or 0.24% of GDP. The British aid program is administered
by the Overseas Development Administration, an agency of the
Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
DEFENSE
The prime minister and the cabinet, under the ultimate control
of Parliament, have supreme responsibility for defense matters. The
secretary of state for defense and two deputies, the ministers of
state for defense, report to the prime minister. The chief of the
defense staff is the senior military officer. The United Kingdom is a
key member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The
United Kingdom is second only to the United States in NATO in total
defense expenditure. Britain is one of NATO's major European
maritime powers. The 57,000-member Royal Navy is in charge of its
independent strategic nuclear arm-Polaris missile submarines to be
replaced by Trident II. Defense of US reinforcement and resupply of
Europe is one of the Royal Navy's major tasks. In addition, the
7,700-member Royal Marines provide commando units for
amphibious assault and for specialist reinforcement forces in and
beyond the NATO area. The army, with a strength of 156,000,
including 5,700 women, provides for the ground defense of the
United Kingdom through its participation in NATO. The British Army
of the Rhine, a major element of NATO's forward defense strategy,
has 52,000 soldiers stationed in Germany. The Royal Air Force (RAF)
has about 90,000 men and women in uniform and receives the
largest share of modern equipment.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
The United Kingdom is a leading member of NATO and of the
United Nations where it is a permanent member of the Security
Council. It has historic global ties, but, as its commitments have
been reduced since World War II, the United Kingdom has sought a
closer association with Europe. It entered the EC on January 1,
1973, and has played a leading role in reactivating the Western
European Union. Britain is represented by 81 directly elected
members of the European Parliament (45 Conservative, 32 Labor,
and 4 Northern Ireland and Scotland seats). Under Prime Minister
Thatcher's leadership, the United Kingdom has been a strong
advocate within NATO of a continuing reliance on a strong defense
and a realistic assessment of the security situation as the
indispensable bases for a successful dialogue with the East. The
United Kingdom took a leading role in helping implement NATO's
1979 dual-track decision, which led to the 1987 Intermediate-
Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. The United Kingdom frequently
has sought to facilitate peaceful resolution of conflicts in various
areas of the world.
US-UK RELATIONS
The United Kingdom is one of the United States' closest allies,
enjoying a so-called special relationship, and British foreign policy
emphasizes close coordination with the United States. Bilateral
cooperation reflects the common language, ideals, and democratic
practices of the two nations. The relations were strengthened by
the UK's alliance with the United States during both World Wars, the
Korean conflict, and now during the conflict in the gulf. The United
Kingdom and the United States continually consult on foreign policy
issues and global problems and share major foreign and security
policy objectives.
Principal Government Officials
Head of State-Queen Elizabeth II
Prime Minister-Margaret Thatcher
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs-
Douglas Hurd
Ambassador to the US-Sir Anthony Acland
Ambassador to the UN-Sir David Hannay
G-7 Economic Summit 1990
President Bush hosted the 16th annual G-7 summit for the
leaders of the major industrialized democracies-Canada, the
Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Japan, the United
Kingdom, and the United States-and the president of the European
Community, in Houston, Texas, July 9-11, 1990. The Houston
economic summit was held against the backdrop of movement
toward democracy and freer markets in many parts of the world,
including elections in Eastern Europe and Nicaragua, increasing
momentum toward German unification, and political reforms in the
Soviet Union. The summit leaders agreed on most international
economic and political issues, but intense discussions were needed
on agricultural subsidies in the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade
negotiations, economic assistance to the Soviet Union, and global
warming before consensus could be reached.
Economic Accomplishments
-- Agreement on progressive reductions in internal and
external support and protection of agriculture and on a framework
for conducting agricultural negotiations in order to conclude the
Uruguay Round by December 1990.
-- Request to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the
World Bank, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), and the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD) to undertake a study of the Soviet economy, to
make recommendations, and to establish the criteria under which
Western economic assistance could effectively support Soviet
reforms by the end of 1990.
-- Support for aid to Central and East European nations that
are firmly committed to political and economic reform, including
freer markets, and encouragement of foreign private investment in
those countries and improved markets for their exports by means of
trade and investment agreements.
-- Pledge to begin negotiations, to be completed by 1992, on
a global forest convention to protect the world's forests.
Political Accomplishments
-- Promotion of democracy throughout the world by assisting
in the drafting of laws, advising in fostering independent media,
establishing training programs, and expanding exchange programs.
-- Endorsement of the maintenance of an effective
international nuclear nonproliferation system, including adoption of
safeguards and nuclear export control measures, and support for a
complete ban on chemical weapons.
Principal US Officials
Ambassador-Henry E. Catto
Minister (Deputy Chief of Mission)-Ronald E. Woods
Minister for Economic Affairs-Ann R. Berry
Minister-Counselor for Political Affairs-Bruce G. Burton
Minister-Counselor for Consular Affairs-Norbert J. Krieg
Minister-Counselor for Administrative Affairs-John Condayan
Minister-Counselor for Commercial Affairs-James L. Blow
Minister-Counselor for Public Affairs (USIS)-Charles Courtney
Counselor for Labor Affairs-Lester P. Slezak
Counselor for Scientific Affairs-James B. Devine
TRAVEL NOTES
Clothing: Fall and winter clothing is needed from about
September through April; spring and summer clothing is useful the
rest of the year.
Health: Good medical facilities are available. Living conditions
are generally excellent, with no unusual health hazards.
Telecommunications: London and nearly all UK localities have
an automatic dial-through telephone system. Cities in the United
States and Western Europe also may be reached by direct dialing.
Internal and international services are efficient. London is five
time zones ahead of Eastern Standard Time.
Transportation: The United Kingdom is a crossroads for
international aviation. Rail, air, and bus transportation in the United
Kingdom is excellent, and travel between all points is quick and
easy. Rental cars are available. Traffic moves on the left.
Holidays:
England
Good Friday-Apr. 13
Easter Monday-Apr. 16
May Day-1st Mon. in May
Spring Holiday-4th Mon. in May
Summer Bank Holiday-4th Mon. in Aug.
Christmas Day-Dec. 25
Boxing Day.-Dec. 26
Northern Ireland
St. Patrick's Day-Mar. 17
Good Friday-Apr. 13
Easter Monday-Apr. 16
Easter Tuesday-Apr. 17
May Day-1st Mon. in May
Orangemen's Day-2nd Fri. in July
Summer Bank Holiday-4th Mon. in Aug.
Christmas Day-Dec. 25
Boxing Day-Dec. 26
Scotland
Bank Holiday-Jan. 2
Good Friday-Apr. 13
Easter Monday-Apr. 16
Victoria Day-3rd Mon. in May
Bank Holiday-1st Mon. in Aug.
Autumn Holiday-3rd Mon. in Sept.
Christmas Day-Dec. 25
Boxing Day-Dec. 26
Published by the United States Department of State -- Bureau of
Public Affairs -- Office of Public Communication -- Washington,
DC -- October 1990 -- Editor: Susan Holly -- Department of
State Publication 8099 -- Background Notes Series
This material is in the public domain and may be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated. For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.(###)