Background Notes: South Africa
PA/PC
Source: Office of Public Communication, Bureau of Public
Affairs
Date: Mar 15, 19903/15/90
Category: Country Data
Region: Subsaharan Africa
Country: South Africa
Subject: Cultural Exchange, Resource Management,
Military Affairs, History, International Organizations,
Trade/Economics, Regional/Civil Unrest
[TEXT]
Official Name: Republic of South Africa
PROFILE
Geography
Area: 1,233,404 sq. km.(472,359 sq. mi.), including the enclave of
Walvis Bay in Namibia; (almost twice the size of Texas). Capitals
(population from the 1985 South African Government census):
Administrative-Pretoria (850,000). Cape Town (1.9 million),
Judicial-Bloemfontein (232,000). Other cities-Johannesburg (1.7
million), Soweto (est. 2 million), Durban (1 million). Terrain:
Plateau, savanna, desert, mountains, coastal plains. Climate:
Moderate.
People
Nationality: Noun and adjective-South African(s). Population: 37.5
million (1988 estimate). Ethnic groups: African (black) 28 million;
white 5.4 million (Afrikaners 2.9 million; English-speaking and
others 2.5 million); "colored" (mixed-race) 3.2 million; Asian
(Indian) 1 million. Annual growth rate: overall 2.3%; African 2.5%;
white 0.85%; "colored" 2.4%; Asian 1.89%. Languages: English and
Afrikaans (official) , Zulu, Xhosa, North and South seSotho,
seTswana, others. Religions: predominantly Christian; traditional
African, Hindu, Muslim, Jewish. Education: Years compulsory-
white and "colored" from ages 7-16; Asian from ages 7-15; being
introduced incrementally for blacks. Health: Infant mortality rate
per 1,000 live births (range of official and unofficial estimates,
1985)-overall 66.4; black 40-124 (wide variation reflects urban/
rural differences); white 9-12; "colored" 29.51; Asian 12.18. Life
expectancy (U.S. Census Bureau, 1987)-overall 60.7 yrs.; black 58.6
yrs; white 71.9 yrs.; "colored" 60.8 yrs.; Asian 67.0 yrs. Work force
(11 million): agriculture 25%; manufacturing and commerce 32%;
services 34.5%; mining 8.5%.
Government
Type: Executive-president; under the 1984 constitution, tricameral
Parliament with one chamber each for whites, "coloreds," and
Asians. Independence: The Union of South Africa was created on
May 31, 1910; became sovereign state within British Empire in
1934; became a republic on May 31, 1961; left the British
Commonwealth in October 1961. Branches: Executive-state
president (chief of state) elected to a 5-year term subject to
removal by majority vote of each of the three Houses. Legislative-
tricameral Parliament consisting of 308 members in three
chambers elected by, respectively, the white, "colored," and Asian
electorates on separate voters' rolls. House of Assembly (white)
166 members elected directly for maximum 5-year term, four
members nominated by the president, eight indirectly elected by the
chamber; House of Representatives ("colored") 80 directly elected
members, two members nominated by the president, and three
indirectly elected by the chamber; House of Delegates (Asian) 40
members directly elected, two nominated by the president and three
indirectly elected by the chamber. President's Council: 60 members,
25 appointed by the president, 20 elected by the House of Assembly,
10 elected by the House of Representatives and five elected by the
House of Delegates. Members serve during term of parliament.
Judicial-Supreme Court consisting of Appellate Division in
Bloemfontein and four provincial divisions.
Administrative subdivisions: Provincial governments of the
Transvaal, Orange Free State, Cape of Good Hope, and Natal; 10
separate "homelands," which the government has designated for
Africans. Four are regarded as independent by South Africa but not
by any other government.
Political parties: White-National Party, Conservative Party,
Democratic Party (merger of Progressive Federal Party, Independent
Party, and National Democratic Movement). "Colored"-Labour Party,
Freedom Party, People's Progressive Party, Reformed Freedom
Party, New Convention People's Party. Asian-National People's
Party, Solidarity, Progressive Independent Party, National Federal
Party, National Democratic Party. Suffrage: Adult whites,
"coloreds," and Asians 18 and older.
Central government budget (FY 1989-90): Rand 46.32 billion (1
rand=about US$.38)
Defense (FY 1989-90): Rand 8.7 billion.
Fiscal year: April 1- March 31.
Flag: Three horizontal bands-orange, white, and blue from top to
bottom with the Union Jack and the flags of the two former Boer
Republics (the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic)
reproduced in miniature and centered on a white band.
Economy
GDP (1988): $83.5 billion. GDP growth rate (1988): 3.2% . GDP per
capita (1988): $2,256. Government spending (1986): 18.8% of GDP.
Inflation (1988): About 12.5%. Unemployment (1988): Estimated
25%-30% for blacks; less than 2% for whites.
Natural resources: Almost all essential commodities, except
petroleum.
Agriculture (1988): About 6% of GNP. Products-corn, wool, dairy
products, wheat, sugar cane, tobacco, citrus fruits, wine.
Cultivated land-12%.
Mining (1988): About 13% of GDP.
Manufacturing (1988): About 24% of GNP.
Industry: Types-minerals, automobiles, fabricated material,
machinery, textiles, chemicals, fertilizer.
Trade: Exports (1988)-f.o.b. $20.9 billion: gold, platinum group
metals, ferrochromium, uranium compounds, diamonds, coal,
agricultural products. Major markets-Japan, West Germany., UK.,
US, Switzerland. Imports (1988)-f.o.b. $14.3 billion: machinery,
mining equipment, transportation equipment, computers, aircraft
parts, rice, and office machinery parts. Major suppliers-Japan,
West Germany, United Kingdom.
Official exchange rate (May 1989): Financial rand exchange rate (1
rand/$US: 0.23; commercial rand exchange rate (1 rand/$US): 0.38.
Membership in International Organizations
UN and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT); INTELSAT; International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA). (South Africa's voting rights in the UN General
Assembly have been suspended since 1974.)
GEOGRAPHY
The Republic of South Africa lies at the southern tip of the
African continent. The independent country of Lesotho is an enclave
situated within the east-central part of South Africa.
South Africa has a narrow coastal zone and an extensive
interior plateau with altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 meters
(3,000-6,000 ft.) above sea level. South Africa lacks important
arterial rivers or lakes, so extensive water conservation and
control are necessary. The coastline is about 4,300 kilometers
(2,700 mi.) long.
South Africa's climate is generally moderate, with sunny days
and cool nights. The seasons are reversed from those in the
northern hemisphere. The average mean temperature is remarkably
uniform, with the most southerly point, near Cape Town, having a
mean yearly temperature of 16.50C (61.8 0F), while Johannesburg,
about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 mi.) to the northeast and 1,700
meters (5,700 ft.) higher, has an annual mean temperature of 16 0C
(60.80F). Mean annual precipitation ranges from less than 12.7
centimeters (5 in.) along the west coast to 102 centimeters (40 in.)
or more in the east.
PEOPLE
South African law divides the population into four major
racial categories: Africans (blacks), whites, "coloreds," and Asians.
The Africans (72% of the population) are mainly descendants of the
Sotho and Nguni peoples who migrated southward centuries ago. The
largest African ethnic groups, according to 1980 estimates, are
Zulu (6 million) and Xhosa (5.8 million). Africans are officially
subdivided into 10 groups corresponding to the 10 ethnically based,
government-created "homelands" (sometimes called "national
states" by South Africa).
Whites are primarily descendants of Dutch, French, English,
and German settlers, with smaller admixtures of other European
peoples, and constitute about 14% of the population.
"Coloreds" are mostly descendants of indigenous peoples and
the earliest European and Malay settlers in the area. "Coloreds"
comprise 9% of the population and live primarily in Cape Province.
Asians are mainly descendants of the Indian workers brought
to South Africa in the mid-19th century to work as indentured
laborers on sugar estates in Natal. They constitute about 3% of the
population.
Of South Africa's 15 residential universities, 10 are
designated for whites (6 Afrikaans-speaking and 4 English-
speaking), 4 for blacks, and 1 each for "coloreds" and Asians.
Africans also have a medical university. Increasing numbers of
blacks are now admitted to white universities. The government has
the legal power to impose quotas, and as it underwrites 75%-80% of
university costs, has the leverage to withhold money to force
universities to follow government standards and regulations. The
four English-speaking universities for whites and the one university
for "coloreds" are seeking to integrate. The student body at these
"open" or integrated universities is 17% nonwhite overall (i.e.,
African, "colored", Asian), with an estimated 25% at the University
of Cape Town in 1988. The University of South Africa conducts
correspondence courses for some 86,000 students of all races. The
literacy rate (15 years and older) for the various groups has been
estimated at: 98% for whites, 50% for Africans, 75% for "coloreds,"
and 85% for Asians.
HISTORY
People have lived in southern Africa for thousands of years.
Of the present inhabitants, the earliest are Bushmen and
Hottentots-members of the Khoisan language group, of whom only a
few survive.
Members of the Bantu language group, to which most of the
present-day blacks of South Africa belong, migrated slowly
southward from central Africa and began to enter the Transvaal
region sometime before 100 AD. The Nguni, ancestors of the Zulus
and Xhosas, had occupied most of the east coast by 1500.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the Cape of
Good Hope, in 1488. Permanent white settlement began when the
Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station there
in 1652. In subsequent decades, French Huguenot refugees, Dutch,
and Germans settled in the Cape area to form the Afrikaner segment
of the modern population. By the end of the 18th century, European
settlement had extended through the southern part of the Cape
westward to the Great Fish River, where the whites first came into
conflict with the Xhosa branch of the Nguni.
Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope at the end of the 18th
century. Subsequent British settlement and rule marked the
beginning of a long conflict between Afrikaner and English. Partly
to escape British political rule and cultural hegemony, many
Afrikaner farmers (Boers) undertook a northern migration (the
"Great Trek") beginning in 1836. This movement brought them into
contact with several African groups, the most formidable of which
were the Zulus. Under their powerful leader, Shaka (1787-1828),
the Zulus conquered most of the territory between the Drakensberg
Mountains and the sea (now Natal). At the Battle of Blood River in
1838, the whites defeated the Zulus and weakened their power. The
Zulus remained a potent force in northern Natal until 1879, when,
after an initial Zulu victory, British troops destroyed Zulu military
power and occupied Zululand.
Independent Boer republics of the Transvaal (the South
African Republic) and the Orange Free State were created in 1852
and 1854. Relations between these republics and the British
Government continued to be strained. The famous diamond strike at
Kimberley in 1870 and, 16 years later, the discovery of extensive
gold deposits in the Witwatersrand region of the Transvaal
prompted an influx of European (mainly British) investment and
immigrants. The Boer reaction to this flood and to British political
intrigues against the two republics led to the two Boer wars in
1880-1881 and 1899-1902. In the second struggle, British forces
conquered the Boer republics and incorporated them into the British
Empire. The two former republics and the two British colonies of
the Cape and Natal were joined on May 31, 1910, to form the Union
of South Africa, a dominion of the British Empire. Whites
controlled most domestic matters. In 1934, under the Statute of
Westminster, the Union achieved status as a sovereign state within
the British Empire.
Conflict between Afrikaners and English-speaking groups
continued to influence political developments. A strong resurgence
of Afrikaner nationalism in the 1940s and 1950s led to a decision,
through a 1960 referendum among whites, to give up dominion
status and establish a republic. The republic was established on
May 31, 1961. In October 1961, South Africa withdrew its
application for continued membership in the Commonwealth.
In 1983, whites approved by 66% of the vote a new
constitution containing limited power sharing with "coloreds" and
Asians. Elections for the "colored" and the Asian Houses of
Parliament took place in August 1984. The new constitution was
promulgated on September 3, 1984.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
When the Union of South Africa was established, the former
Boer republics and the principal British colony wanted their
capitals-Pretoria, Bloemfontein, and Cape Town-to be selected as
the capital of the new Union. They compromised by making Pretoria
the administrative capital, Cape Town the legislative capital, and
Bloemfontein the judicial capital.
The Union's successor, the Republic of South Africa, has opted
for a unique combination of a strong presidential system and a
tricameral parliament. Ultimate power in South Africa today is
increasingly "extraparliamentary" in nature and rests to a
substantial degree with the State President, his advisory council,
members of his cabinet, and the security/defense establishment.
South African laws are based on the doctrine of apartheid,
which prescribes basic rights and obligations according to racial or
ethnic origin. The country's black majority continues to suffer from
pervasive, legally sanctioned discrimination based on race in
political, economic, and social aspects of life. The "colored" and
Asian minorities also suffer from discrimination, although to a
somewhat lesser degree than blacks. Political rights of the black
majority are confined to participation in tightly controlled urban
councils in the country's black residential areas (townships) and in
the 10 so-called homelands. Blacks have been excluded from even
the limited political changes initiated under South Africa's 1984
constitution. They have no right to vote in national elections and
have no representation in Parliament.
In the September 6, 1989 election to the House of Assembly,
the governing National Party lost strength to both the right and left
but still captured 93 seats. The right-wing Conservative Party won
39 seats, up from 22, and remained the official opposition. The
pro-reform Democratic Party increased its strength from 19 to 33
seats.
Members for each House are elected from separate, racially
based voter rolls. Each House has primary responsibility for "own-
affairs" matters; i.e., legislation affecting its own racial
constituency. The State President is empowered to decide
arbitrarily which "general affairs" matters are to be treated by all
three chambers. If efforts at consensus on general affairs issues
fail, the issues are referred to the President's Council, a body
composed of whites, "coloreds," and Asians, for an advisory opinion.
The ruling National Party controls the President's Council. In June
1986, the "colored" and Asian Houses of Parliament attempted to
block security legislation passed by the white House of Assembly.
The President's Council overrode this effort, and the disputed
security legislation became law.
The lines between "own affairs" and "general affairs" are
sometimes imprecise. Matters usually considered general affairs
include foreign policy, defense, and national security. Education is
normally an "own affair" but is subject to general laws prescribing
norms and standards for salaries, curriculum, and exams. The terms
of the new constitution and the existence of a white majority in
Parliament ensure control by the white House of Assembly over
general affairs. The National Party, which has controlled South
African political affairs since its first parliamentary victory in
1948, dominates legislative affairs by sheer force of numbers.
Within the National Party, viewpoints toward reform of the
apartheid system range from moderate to reactionary. Internal
differences are, in theory, resolved in party caucuses. In practice,
the State President, who also is the National Party leader, is the
ultimate arbiter.
Blacks have no representation in Parliament. Their political
participation remains limited to a franchise in one of the 10
homelands to which all blacks, in principle, are assigned through
ethnic or linguistic identification, or, in the case of urban blacks,
to selecting black local government officials. Assignment takes
place regardless of the wishes of those involved and without regard
to whether they have been born, ever lived in, or even visited their
putative homeland. When a homeland "requests" and is granted
"independence" by the South African Government, blacks assigned to
that homeland lose their South African citizenship and receive the
"citizenship" of the homeland. (Provision now has been made to
permit nominal citizens of the "independent" homelands to regain
South African citizenship under circumstances not fully defined.)
An estimated 8 million blacks have lost South African
citizenship under this policy by South African legislation granting
"independence" to four homelands: Transkei (1976); Bophuthatswana
(1977); Venda (1979); and Ciskei (1981). The Government has said
it has no plans to abolish the homelands system.
An estimated 10 million blacks live in townships near white
urban areas. Their only voting rights are those granted under the
Community Councils Act of 1977 and the Black Local Authorities
Act of 1982. The Black Local Authorities Act of 1982 elevated the
legal status of black municipal authorities to that of white
municipal governments. It did nothing, however, about the critical
problems of inadequate financial resources and the lack of political
credibility faced by black local government. Much of the violence in
black townships in 1986 was directed at black town councillors and
black policemen who were viewed by many blacks as collaborators
with the South African Government. In many areas, town councils
resigned because of community opposition, which often took the
form of political violence.
In 1985, Parliament passed legislation to replace all-white
provincial councils with multiracial regional services councils
(RSCs), which were to include representatives of black, Asian, and
"colored" local governments. The government has had difficulty
drawing authentic black leaders into the RSCs. The government
characterizes RSCs as a "devolution" of power to local bodies. Many
people regard them as barriers to greater democracy in local
government.
In Natal Province, the Indaba, a convention in which all racial
groups and a range of social and political organizations are
represented, met for several months in 1986 on a proposal for a
new constitution for the province. The proposal (among other
provisions) provided for a bill of rights with firm constitutional
guarantees of individual liberties. It also proposed a universal
franchise and a bicameral legislature in which the larger chamber
would be elected on a one-person, one-vote basis, and the smaller
chamber would represent specified ethnic groups with veto rights
over certain affairs affecting them. The leader of the ruling
National Party for Natal Province rejected the terms of the Indaba
proposal when it was first announced. Indaba leaders later
presented the proposal to the government, where it remains "under
study."
Human Rights
The human rights situation in South Africa deteriorated from
1985 to 1989. Throughout this period, political discontent and
violence have persisted in black and colored townships. Following
the July 1985-March 1986 state of emergency, the government
imposed a new state of emergency in June 1986 for 1 year, which
has been extended for each of the 3 succeeding years. Under the
state of emergency, police and military exercise extraordinary
arrest and detention powers. Further, legislative amendments
passed in 1986 give the executive branch broad emergency powers
even without declaring a state of emergency.
Human rights groups estimate that at least 846 people died as
a result of political unrest between June 1987 and June 1988,
compared with 695 in the same period a year earlier. In mid-1988,
human rights groups asserted that more than 30,000 people had
been detained since the June 1986 declaration of a state of
emergency and that an estimated 1,500 remained in detention at the
end of the year. Following a series of hunger strikes and
negotiations between the government and community leaders, most
of the detainees had been released by mid-1989.
Leaders of the opposition United Democratic Front (UDF), a
coalition of more than 700 antiapartheid groups, and various black
trade unions have been special targets for detention under the
emergency decree. In February 1988, the government effectively
banned the UDF and 16 other leading antiapartheid groups and
prohibited the Congress of South African Trade Unions, the country's
largest labor organization, from participating in "political"
activities. At the end of 1988, 32 opposition groups had been
effectively banned. Throughout the state of emergency, reports of
officially sanctioned acts of violence against dissidents have been
widespread.
The banned African National Congress (ANC), most of whose
leadership was in exile, imprisoned, or operating underground
within South Africa, proclaimed 1986 as a year of intensified
armed struggle against apartheid. In 1986, the ANC claimed
responsibility for a number of acts of urban violence and landmine
explosions in rural areas, although it has often equivocated on its
responsibility for incidents that involved civilian deaths. The ANC
also has called on blacks to overthrow the government by concerted
acts of violence, notably against black police and township
officials, in attempts to make the townships "ungovernable." The
ANC has admitted responsibility for some bomb attacks that shook
South Africa in the first half of 1988. Attacks against "soft
targets"-theaters, restaurants, sports facilities-increased in late
1988, but the ANC described these as aberrations from its policy.
The number of such attacks in 1989 was negligible.
The government released two elderly long-term prisoners in
1988, Zeph Mothopeng, President of the PAC, and Henry Gwala, an
ANC leader. Three prominent UDF activists who escaped police
custody and took refuge in the US Consulate General in Johannesburg
in September were allowed to leave the consulate unmolested and
were granted passports for travel abroad. In December 1988, under
great international pressure, the government commuted the death
sentences of the Sharpeville Six, who were convicted of murder for
their presence in a crowd that killed a black township official.
Newly elected President F.W. De Klerk took several steps in
1989 and 1990 to demonstrate his commitment to ending apartheid,
including the release of ANC leader Nelson Mandela, imprisoned in
1962 and sentenced to life in 1964 for treason and sabotage, and
other political prisoners and detainees; unbanning the ANC and 32
other antiapartheid organizations; lifting some state of emergency
restrictions; and allowing peaceful demonstrations. An
unprecedented mass pro-ANC rally was held earlier in Johannesburg
without police interference.
Other opponents of apartheid, such as young black activists in
the townships, have advocated and engaged in violent attacks on
black township officials and others suspected of "collaborating"
with the government. During the greatest unrest in 1984-85, many
blacks were attacked by activists attempting to enforce protest
activities such as school or consumer boycotts. These actions, in
turn, spawned the creation, often with government encouragement,
of black
vigilante groups opposed to the young black political activists,
which has led to internecine strife in a number of communities.
Until De Klerk's inauguration, the government had imposed
curbs on the media to limit the reporting of political unrest and
antigovernment activities. In December 1986, the government
tightened existing emergency regulations to prohibit reporting on a
variety of politically related topics without clearance by state
censors. In August 1987, it imposed further curbs permitting it to
bypass the courts in banning or censoring newspapers and other
journals. Several prominent U.S. and other foreign journalists have
been expelled for allegedly violating these restrictions. The
government continued to clamp down on the press in 1988,
suspending three newspapers for one to three months. In late 1989,
the government indicated that press restrictions would be reduced.
A milestone event in the black struggle for equal rights
occurred in August 1987 when the National Union of Mineworkers,
the country's largest black labor union, struck on an unprecedented
scale, shutting down about a third of the country's more than 100
gold and coal mines. The strike continued for 3 weeks, longer than
most observers thought possible in view of the union's lack of
resources, including the absence of a strike fund. Its leaders
finally accepted a management offer of improved benefits but failed
to win the wage hike and other goals they had sought. The strike
nevertheless signified the importance of trade union organization
and mobilization among black workers. The government rejected
right-wing pressure to attempt to force the strikers back to work.
And although the cost was heavy-nine people died-the strike marked
a critical test of the 1979 legislation legalizing black unions and
strikes by black workers.
In the first half of 1986, Parliament made significant changes
in the apartheid system, including abolition of influx control or
"pass" laws, which for years extensively regulated the right of
blacks to be present in urban areas. Parliament passed legislation
permitting some blacks to regain the citizenship they had lost in
previous years when some homelands were given "independence."
The government also introduced a freehold system of land
ownership for blacks, permitting some to own homes in urban areas
designated for blacks under the Group Areas Act. Recently, the
government repealed the remaining racial job discrimination
decrees in the mining industry.
Race remains the fundamental basis for the organization of
South African society. Although De Klerk has said that he supports
the eventual abolition of apartheid, the recognition and protection
of group rights and interests remains central to government policy.
Nevertheless, by 1990 the government and opposition leaders
appeared to be moving toward negotiations to end apartheid and
create a new South Africa.
Principal Government Officials
State President-Frederik Willem De Klerk
Ministers:
Administration and Privatization-W.J. De Villiers
Agriculture-Jacob De Villiers
Constitutional Development and Planning and National
Education (White)-Gerrit Viljoen
Defense-Magnus Malan Education and Development Aid-C.J. Van
Der Merwe
Environmental and Water Affairs-G.J. Kotze
Finances-Barend Du Plessis
Foreign Affairs-Roelof F. "Pik" Botha
Internal Affairs and Manpower-E. Louw Justice-H.J. Coetsee
Law and Order-Adriaan Vlok
Mineral and Energy Affairs and Public Enterprises-D.J. De
Villiers
National Health and Population Development-E.H. Venter
Planning and Provincial Affairs-Hernus Kriel
Trade, Industry, and Tourism-Kent Durr
Transport, Public Works, and Land Affairs-George Bartlett
Ambassador to the United States-Piet G.J. Koornhof
Ambassador to the United Nations-Jeremy Shearar
Chairman of the Ministers' Council of the ("colored") House of
Representatives-A.J. Hendrickse
Chairman of the Ministers' Council of the (Indian) House of
Delegates-Jayaram N. Reddy
The Republic of South Africa maintains an embassy in the
United States at 3051 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC
20008, (202) 232-4400.
ECONOMY
Until well into the 19th century, most South Africans, black
and white, lived primarily by herding and farming. The discovery of
diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886 helped create South Africa's
industrial age. Rapidly growing mineral industries promoted the
development of cities and the concentration of workers by the
hundreds of thousands.
Today, South Africa is an industrializing country with most of
the characteristics associated with developing economies-a
division between formal and informal sectors, uneven distribution
of wealth and income, a dependence on commodity exports, and a
legacy of government intervention. Despite its highly visible
modern sector, South Africa is not a wealthy country, with a
population of 37 million and a GDP of $83.5 billion. It is comparable
in size and per capita income to South Korea.
South Africa has a well-developed formal sector based on
mining and manufacturing and a smaller, but important ,sector
based on agriculture and services. Despite the presence of a free-
market ideology, South Africa has a mixed economy, with
substantial government intervention existing jointly with a strong
private sector. Economic policy has concentrated on the formal
sector, but since the mid-1980s it has turned to developing the
informal sector through education and training, job creation, and
assistance to small businesses.
The South African economy has evolved as part of the broader
Western industrial economy. The cyclical economic fortunes of
South Africa have depended largely on demand from the Organization
of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) for its exports,
the world gold price, and foreign capital inflows. At the time that
it became a republic in 1961, South Africa's exports equalled
almost a third of GDP, with more than 90% of these exports going to
OECD countries. As the following data indicate, during the quarter-
century since, the real growth rate has correlated with the
performance of the major industrialized economic powers (Canada,
France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, and the United
States).
South Africa's economy has slowed despite a rise in the price
of its key export, gold, from $35 an ounce in the 1960s to an
average of $130 in the 1970s and $450 in 1980-1985. South
Africa's economy has suffered primarily because of slower growth
in export demand, a severe drought in 1982-1986, a drop in the
price of gold, and a shortage of foreign exchange.
Economic sanctions also have worked to depress economic
growth (see page 9). Most economists agree that long-term
economic recovery will continue to be undermined by rising
inflation and unemployment and by balance-of-payments pressures.
Financial Policy
The financial structure and financial institutions in South
Africa are extremely sophisticated, mirroring those found in a
developed economy, including an effective stock exchange that
handles large volumes of gilt and semigilt securities, in addition to
private scrip.
The South Africa Reserve Bank performs all central banking
functions. Its customers are limited to government agencies,
private banks, and discount houses. The Reserve Bank is semi-
independent of government control but in practice works closely
with the Department of Finance and the State President in
formulating and implementing government policy.
The private financial structure is equally sophisticated, and
the full spectrum of financial institutions is found in the country.
Five firms dominate retail banking. A money market with four
private discount houses operates along the lines of the London
discount market. South Africa also has a strong building society
movement, which has traditionally provided a major part of the
finance requirements for private home ownership. Private pension
funds and long-term insurers are important savings institutions.
South African monetary policy for the most part attempts to
emphasize market forces, including a managed float of the rand,
some deregulation of banking activities, money-supply growth
targets, and market-related interest rates. Fiscal policy is less
controlled, with a history of increases in government spending as a
percent of GDP and deficits in the range of 4% to 5% of GDP in the
last several years.
In early 1985, growing international nervousness over South
Africa's political situation led some foreign banks to refuse to roll
over South African debt repayments. This caused the value of the
rand to plummet, threatened the country with an uncontrolled
outflow of capital, and led the government to suspend principal
repayments on $14 billion of South Africa's $24 billion in foreign
debt.
To stabilize the value of the rand and act as a barrier against
capital outflow, South Africa reintroduced a dual exchange rate
system. The exchange rate for the financial rand applies to all
capital funds leaving or entering South Africa. A separate exchange
rate for the commercial rand was established for use solely within
the country. Decreasing foreign investment has led to reduced
demand for the financial rand, which usually trades at a
considerable discount vis-avis the commercial rand.
In 1987 and in 1989, the South African Government was able
to reach 3-year agreements with major commercial creditor banks
for repayment of the debt. The dual-rand exchange rate system
remains in practice.
Foreign Trade
Despite the development of a diversified manufacturing
sector, South Africa retains its historic pattern of importing
mainly manufactured capital goods and exporting raw and
semiprocessed mineral and agricultural products.
Top trading partners in 1988 were West Germany and Japan,
with the United Kingdom and the United States next.
South Africa's trade with Western countries has come under a
variety of well-documented stress: declining Western demand for
its traditional commodity exports (coal, iron, steel, sugar, corn,
wine); trade sanctions and boycotts; an embargo on foreign financial
capital; and South Africa's foreign currency exchange controls. As a
result, South Africa's growth potential has been reduced, creating a
new urgency for economic reform while narrowing the options for
promoting structural change.
Sanctions
South Africa has been the target of restrictions because of
opposition to apartheid. By executive order and legislation, the
United States has imposed increasingly stringent sanctions over the
last 25 years, including prohibitions on new investment; loans to
the South African Government's importers of iron, steel, krugerrand
gold coins, textiles, uranium, and products produced by "parastatal"
organizations; and crude oil exports, petroleum products, some
computer technology, and arms. By mid-1988, the US share of South
Africa's foreign trade had plummeted to 7.5%, far below its 1978
peak of 17.2%.
South Africa has proved adept at circumventing sanctions. Oil
continues to reach the country through third-party arrangements,
and a UN arms embargo in place since 1977 has led to the
development of a strong local armaments industry, which now
exports arms.
Foreign Investment
Foreign private investment is important to South Africa's
economic development. In recent years, South African officials
estimate that about 10% of new investment capital has been
obtained from foreign countries. Foreign investment is
concentrated in mining, manufacturing, and petroleum processing
and distribution.
Book value of US investment at the end of 1987 was $1.5
billion. Under the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986, the
US Government prohibits new investment in South Africa. An
exception is allowed for private investment in South African firms
owned by black South Africans. US firms already present in South
Africa are required to adopt fair labor standards that prohibit
discrimination in the workplace and provide assistance and
training to black employees and other blacks. All US firms with
investment in South Africa must register with the Department of
State and submit a completed questionnaire that describes their
efforts to comply with the fair labor standards. Firms judged to be
failing to comply are denied US export-promotion assistance
worldwide.
Americans considering investment in black-owned businesses
in the so-called independent homelands of Transkei, Ciskei,
Bophuthatswana, or Venda should be aware that the United States
can offer no diplomatic or consular assistance in such areas. The
US Government does not recognize the local "homeland governments"
and has no official contact with them.
Employment
South Africa's sluggish growth has inhibited its ability to
create new jobs. From 1970 to 1987, total nonagricultural
employment grew an average of 1.1% a year. Between 1978 and
1987, the average employment growth rate was only 0.4%, well
below the growth in the labor force.
Many analysts estimate South Africa will need a 5% real
annual growth rate just to keep pace with the number of new black
entrants into the labor market. Given South Africa's long-term
economic problems, 5% is considerably higher than appears likely.
Assuming the average GDP growth rate at 3% a year, a better rate
than in recent years, some 6 million South Africans, almost all of
them black, will be unemployed by the year 2000.
The South African Government has attempted to alleviate
employment problems by eliminating reservation of certain jobs for
whites, legalizing black labor unions, spending more on black
education, and offering incentives for on-the-job training.
Key Sectors
Minerals. South Africa is endowed with a variety of minerals.
It is the world's leading producer of gold, gem diamonds, vanadium,
and ferro-chromium, and a major producer of platinum-group
metals, titanium, antimony, asbestos, and manganese. South
African reserves of manganese, platinum-group metals, and chrome
ore are each greater than half of the world's known supplies;
reserves of gold are almost half of total known world reserves.
Mining, and in particular gold mining, is the most critical
sector in the South African economy. Gold typically accounts for
about 40% of all export proceeds, and other minerals account for a
further 20%. Total exports represent between one-fourth and one-
third of GDP, and domestic growth is to a considerable degree still
led by export demand.
Inadequate petroleum resources are a cause of concern to this
otherwise mineral-rich country. Following extensive exploration
efforts, limited commercially promising petroleum deposits have
been found in the offshore areas adjacent to Mossel Bay. Natural
gas deposits are being developed in the Mossel Bay area. As of now,
no commercial production of oil has occurred, but exploration
continues on and offshore. South African officials have long been
aware of the vulnerability of their country to a petroleum boycott
and have built a substantial strategic oil reserve. They also have
stressed the necessity of using coal for energy. Domestic coal
provides about 75% of the country's energy needs and may provide
more in the future. South Africa's SASOL corporation provides a coal
gasification/liquefaction process to produce petroleum products
and is capable of providing an estimated 50% of South Africa's
petroleum requirements.
Manufacturing.
South Africa has the most extensive and diversified
manufacturing sector in Africa. Manufacturing accounts for 19% of
the country's GDP. Most goods produced in South Africa are destined
for the domestic market.
Although the public sector is involved in manufacturing
through parastatal corporations such as ISCOR, the largest steel
manufacturer, most manufacturing is in the private sector.
Investment in the manufacturing sector has fallen steadily,
with real net fixed investment turning negative in 1985--86. In
short, it was inadequate even to cover depreciation in those years,
and the physical capital stock shrank. Moreover, the investment
that has occurred has tended to substitute capital for labor, which
has further hindered job creation.
Agriculture. Except in periods of extreme drought such as 1982-
86, South Africa has been a net food exporter. About 30% of nongold
export proceeds typically come from sales of agricultural and
processed agricultural products. A variety of agricultural products
is produced because the country is so large and has a range of
climatic conditions. Almost every kind of food crop and fiber is
grown successfully. A number of major irrigation schemes enable
farmers to produce crops in areas where the natural rainfall is too
low. But the bulk of agricultural production is still rain-fed.
Agricultural land, like residential areas, is racially zoned.
Blacks can hold land only in the "independent" homelands, although a
few black, Asian and "colored" farmers are found in nominally white
areas. The majority of agricultural production comes from
sophisticated white-owned commercial farms, yet the bulk of the
agricultural labor force is concentrated in the subsistence sector of
the homeland areas.
Economic Effects of Apartheid
.
Economists agree that apartheid is incompatible with a
modern, healthy economy. The multitude of laws and regulations
that implement the apartheid system imposes great costs on the
economy and inhibit market flexibility. Apartheid and its impact on
South Africa's international status deny Pretoria the option of
addressing its economic challenges without reference to broader
political issues. As South Africa wrestles with this problem,
observers point to the following effects of apartheid on the
economy:
-- Too many resources have gone into projects, programs, and
policies that are motivated by ideological and racial concerns
without due regard for economic realities.
-- Inadequate investment has been made in "human capital,"
particularly to educate blacks, damaging the country's international
competitiveness, among other effects.
-- The continued practice of apartheid breeds instability and
political upheaval. The underlying unease over the political
situation in South Africa serves to undermine economic confidence
and performance. As political instability has increased, it has
tended to reinforce the economic difficulties. During the last
several years, this occurred in several ways:
-- Foreign investor confidence was damaged, leading to
capital flight, disinvestment, and a plummeting rand, culminating in
reimposition of foreign exchange controls and the declaration of a
partial moratorium on debt repayment; domestic political upheavals
thus reinforced the erosion of economic ties to the West.
-- Domestic consumer and business confidence were hurt,
leading to a domestic "liquidity trap," with sharply reduced
purchases of durable goods, surplus industrial capacity, declining
investment, and negative real interest rates; domestic political
unrest thus exacerbated South Africa's deindustrialization.
-- The government repressed most black political activities
in a bid to end the unrest, which led to politicization of the black
labor union movement and greater conflict between business and
labor than might otherwise have been the case; domestic political
upheavals thus may have reinforced mechanization of the narrowing
industrial base.
Each of these factors, in turn, feeds upon the others, creating
an unhealthy political-economic dynamic. Recent government
efforts to instigate some reforms may reflect the realization that
South Africa's socioeconomic future otherwise would be bleak.
DEFENSE
The South African Defense Force (SADF) comprises four
services-army, navy, air force, and medical-each headed by a
lieutenant general. Most SADF personnel are white. Because of
growing need for staff in the military and civilian sectors,
recruitment of volunteers among other races is increasing. Only
white males are subject to the draft.
The SADF in 1987 had about 100,000 men on active duty,
55,000 of whom were conscripts. About 13,000 "coloreds," blacks,
and Asians were serving in the military. A total of 400,000 other
whites from the reserves can be rapidly mobilized for duty. The
armed forces can conduct counterinsurgency and conventional
operations within South Africa and in neighboring countries.
Improving the quality of training and increasing the quality and
quantity of military equipment are emphasized. South Africa has no
international alliances. The military budget for FY 1989-90 was
estimated to be rand 8.7 billion (about $3.3 billion).
FOREIGN RELATIONS
South African forces fought in World War I on the Allied side,
and its diplomats participated in the 1919 Versailles Peace
Conference. South Africa was a founding member of the League of
Nations and was given a mandate to govern South-West Africa, now
Namibia, which had been a German colony before the war. South
Africa created a Department of External Affairs in 1927 and later
that year established diplomatic missions in the main West
European countries and in the United States.
South African volunteer forces, including blacks, fought on the
side of the Allies in World War II, took part in the Berlin Airlift,
and participated in the postwar UN force in Korea. The South
African Government has long stressed anticommunism in
unsuccessful efforts to enlist Western countries in common defense
efforts.
South Africa's foreign relations have been bedeviled by its
racially discriminatory domestic policies, particularly since the
end of World War II. Its refusal until 1988 to allow independence
for Namibia also provoked negative reaction.
South Africa ignored an advisory judgment of the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1950 that any change in the
status of the Namibian territory must receive the assent of the
United Nations as the successor to the League of Nations. Ethiopia
and Liberia later charged South Africa with violating its mandate,
but the ICJ dismissed the case on technical grounds in 1966. Later
that year, the UN declared, with US support, that the mandate was
terminated and that responsibility for the territory had passed to
the UN. The ICJ upheld this position in a 1971 advisory opinion.
(See Background Notes on Namibia.)
In 1974, the 29th UN General Assembly voted to deprive South
Africa of its Assembly seat (although South Africa was not expelled
from the organization) for its refusal to comply with UN and ICJ
rulings on Namibia. In January 1976, the UN Security Council voted
unanimously to demand that elections leading to independence be
held in Namibia under UN supervision. In 1978, the South African
Government agreed in principle. Nevertheless, the growing presence
of Cuban forces in Angola led the South African Government to
insist on the withdrawal of these forces in parallel with their
implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 435, which sets
out a formula for Namibian elections.
A 10-year mediation by the United States among Angola, Cuba,
and South Africa culminated in two agreements signed on December
22, 1988. The agreements established a timetable for the
withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola and cleared the way for
South African withdrawal from Namibia. Implementation of
Resolution 435 began on April 1, 1989. Elections for a constituent
assembly were scheduled for November 1989, in anticipation of
independence a few months thereafter.
Beginning in the 1960s, South Africa attempted to improve
relations with the rest of Africa, emphasizing the role that its
economic and technological resources might play in the future of
African development efforts. Exchanges of visits between South
African leaders and those of other African countries began in the
late 1960s, and various kinds of relationships were established
with a number of countries. Only Malawi agreed to formal
diplomatic relations. In 1988, President P. W. Botha made
unprecedented visits to Mozambique, Malawi, Zaire, and Cote
d'Ivoire.
In recent years, South African forces have conducted military
raids into Lesotho, Mozambique, Botswana, Swaziland, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe. The incursions have been aimed at ANC bases and have
resulted in civilian casualties. South Africa has backed
antigovernment insurgencies in Angola and Mozambique and has been
accused of supporting dissident elements in Zimbabwe and other
neighboring countries.
In 1984, South Africa signed the Nkomati Accord with
Mozambique, in which each country agreed to prohibit hostile
operations against the other from its territory. Mozambique has
complained that the South Africans have failed to live up to their
side of the bargain through continued support to RENAMO-the
Mozambique resistance movement founded by Rhodesian authorities
in the 1970s. More recently, relations between the two countries
have improved amid signs that the South Africans were distancing
themselves from RENAMO. South Africa also has agreed to
rehabilitate the electrical distribution system bringing power from
the Cahora Bassa Dam to South Africa, much of which has been
destroyed by RENAMO.
South Africa has no diplomatic relations with any communist
country. The Soviet Union broke off relations in the 1950s. With
the advent of "new thinking" in Soviet foreign policy, the USSR,
through its role as an observer during the Angola-Namibia
negotiations, has begun informal contacts with South Africa. The
Soviet Union also participates in the Joint Commission that
oversees implementation of the Angola-Namibia agreements. A
Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister visited South Africa unofficially in
early 1989.
International pressure on South Africa has intensified in
reaction to three major outbreaks of violent protest and government
repression: in 1960-61, when demonstrations broke out in the
aftermath of the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 black
protesters were shot dead during peaceful protests; in 1976-77,
when Soweto students revolted and protests again swept across the
country; and since 1984, because of Government action to suppress
dissent by declaring states of emergency.
By 1987, South Africa faced economic sanctions in place by
the United States, members of the European Community, the Nordic
countries, and many Third World countries.
US-SOUTH AFRICAN RELATIONS
The United States has maintained an official presence in
South Africa since an American consulate was opened in Cape Town
in 1799 (the fifth on the African Continent). US Consulates General
are in Johannesburg, Durban, and Cape Town. The US Embassy in
Pretoria moves to Cape Town during parliamentary sessions. In
addition to official relationships, Americans and South Africans
have many nongovernmental ties. For example, black and white
American missionaries have a long history of activity there, and the
United States has long been one of South Africa's leading trading
partners.
During the last 20 years, however, US-South African relations
have been increasingly affected by South Africa's racial policies,
which are antithetical to the US commitment to racial justice and
human rights. The United States believes the denial of all political
rights and equal economic opportunity to the black majority of
South Africa to be a major factor of instability in southern Africa.
The United States attaches great importance to good relations with
other African countries, all of which oppose South Africa's racial
policies. If South Africa's policies are unaltered, the United States
predicts progressively violent racial confrontation and the possible
introduction of great-power rivalry into the region, to the
detriment of all of its inhabitants.
To demonstrate US opposition to apartheid and to support
peaceful change toward racial justice, the United States has
imposed restraints on relations with South Africa. Since 1963, the
United States has embargoed arms sales to South Africa, and in
1977 it supported the UN Security Council's imposition of a
mandatory international arms embargo on South Africa. In February
1978, the US Government issued regulations (in compliance with,
but going beyond, the Security Council resolution) to prohibit
exports destined for the South African military, the police, or
apartheid-enforcing agencies. These were revised in early 1982 to
enhance enforceability.
On October 2, 1986, Congress passed the Comprehensive Anti-
Apartheid Act of 1986. This act widened sanctions against South
Africa, including a ban on new investments unless they were in
firms owned by black South Africans. South African Airways'
landing rights in the United States were terminated, loans to the
private sector in South Africa were banned, and a prohibition on
imports of iron, steel, textiles, food, sugar, and other agricultural
products was introduced. The legislation prohibited export of crude
oil and petroleum products to South Africa.
By 1987, US sanctions were the toughest of any of South
Africa's major trading partners. In late 1989, the Bush
Administration recommended to Congress that additional sanctions
not be enacted in view of steps being taken within South Africa to
bring about change through peaceful means.
The United States has refused to recognize the "independence"
of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei and has said that it
will not recognize the "independence" of any of the South African
homelands.
The United States opposes the homeland policy because it
arbitrarily denies South African citizenship to most blacks residing
in those areas. Moreover, it allocates less than 15% of the land area
to the almost three-fourths of the population that is black.
In addition to these restraints, the United States has sought
to encourage peaceful evolution in South Africa toward a
government based on the consent of all those governed by it,
regardless of race. The United States maintains contacts with
political opposition groups within and outside South Africa, trying
to convince all parties that negotiated change is preferable to
violence. In January 1987, then-Secretary of State Shultz met in
Washington with ANC President Oliver Tambo. In May 1989,
President Bush met with Archbishop Desmond Tutu and other
clergymen prominent in the struggle against apartheid. The United
States has repeatedly called for the release of all political
prisoners, as well as the lifting the state of emergency, viewing
these actions as necessary first steps toward meaningful
negotiations.
Meanwhile, the US Government sponsors an assistance
program whose aim is to help South Africans disadvantaged by
apartheid. The program is conducted entirely outside South African
Government channels. In fiscal 1989, about $35 million was
programmed for projects in education, human rights, labor, black
enterprise, and community development.
Principal US Officials
Ambassador-William L. Swing
Deputy Chief of Mission and Minister-Counselor-Genta
Hawkins Holmes
Economic Counselor-Stephen H. Rogers
Political Counselor-Robin Raphel
Public Affairs Officer-Kent Obee
Defense Attache-Lt. Col. Michael Fergunson
Administrative Counselor-Andrew J. Winter
AID Director-Dennis P. Barrett
Agricultural Attache-Roger Puterbaugh
Consul General, Cape Town-Charles R. Baquet, III
Consul General, Durban-F. Allen Harris
Consul General, Johannesburg-Peter R. Chaveas.
The African National Congress (ANC)
The African National Congress (ANC) is a predominantly black
South African political and paramilitary organization, founded in
1912. It is the oldest organization opposing legalized racism and
white rule and was banned by the South African Government from
1960 to 1990, operating underground and in exile.
The ANC was founded with the objectives of eliminating all
restrictions based on color and obtaining black representation in
Parliament. In its first 50 years of existence, the ANC staged
demonstrations, strikes, petitions, and other peaceful protest, all
of which made it a target for police harassment and arrest. After
the National Party came to power in 1948, with its doctrine of
white supremacy and apartheid, ANC membership grew rapidly,
rising to more than 100,000 by 1952. In that year, Chief Albert
Luthuli was elected president general of the party. He was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1961.
In 1960, the ANC, along with a splinter group known as the
Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), organized mass demonstrations to
protest the pass laws that for years regulated the right of blacks to
be present in urban areas. In one of these protests, at Sharpeville,
south of Johannesburg, police opened fire and killed 69
demonstrators. Scores were wounded. Subsequently, the ANC and
the PAC were outlawed. Denied legal avenues toward political
change, the ANC turned first to sabotage and then began to organize
for guerrilla warfare. Nelson Mandela, a black lawyer and ANC
leader, was the most prominent of the ANC members who were
arrested, tried, and convicted for treason in 1964. Following the
release in October 1989 of Walter Sisulu and other longtime fellow
prisoners, the release of Mandela was expected to occur by early
1990. Mandela, along with the current president, Oliver Tambo, who
operates from exile in Zambia, are the best-known leaders.
Long-term aims of the ANC were set forth in the "Freedom
Charter," which was adopted in 1955. This document states that
the ANC's ultimate goal is a liberated, nonracial South Africa in
which individual rights would be guaranteed and nationalization of
certain industries would occur within a basically mixed economy.
In 1988, the ANC published draft constitutional guidelines that
expounded on the ideas expressed in the Freedom Charter but
contained less rigid views on South Africa's economic future.
The South African Communist Party has aligned itself with
the ANC since the civil disobedience campaigns of the 1950s and
remains a significant influence within the organization's
leadership. But the Communist Party is only one element in the
coalition of interests in the ANC.
The Soviet Union and its allies have provided arms to the ANC
to conduct its insurgent campaign, while the Scandinavian countries
provide nonmilitary assistance. The South African Government has
depicted the ANC as terrorists and puppets of Moscow and has
across borders of neighboring countries at ANC guerrilla bases.
The United States has maintained contacts with the ANC, just
as with other black opposition groups, for some time. The freeing
of Nelson Mandela and the unbanning of the ANC in February 1990
were first steps by the Government toward negotiations leading to
a more just society in South Africa.
WHAT IS APARTHEID/
In the language of the ruling white Afrikaners in South Africa,
"apartheid" means "apartness." Since 1948, when the National Party
assumed power, apartheid or "separate development" has been the
policy that governs relations between South Africa's white minority
and black majority (although the South African Government now
rarely uses these terms in official communications). It sanctions
racial segregation and political and economic discrimination
against all who are not white.
The National Party extended racial segregation through
passage of a number of legislative acts soon after it came to power
in 1948. In the 1960s and the 1970s, other laws were passed to
make every black African, irrespective of actual residence, a
hypothetical citizen of one of 10 homelands created by the South
African Government as political entities to which blacks would be
arbitrarily assigned. This device excluded blacks from the South
African body politic. By the early 1980s, four of the homelands-
Transkei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana, and Venda-had been granted
"independence" as "national states." No government except South
Africa recognizes the four homelands as independent. All 10 remain
politically and economically dependent on South Africa.
In 1950, the white Parliament passed the Group Areas Act,
which established residential and business sections in urban areas
for each race and strengthened existing "pass laws," which require
blacks to carry documents authorizing their presence in restricted
areas. Other laws were enacted to forbid most social contacts
between the races, mandate segregated public facilities, establish
separate educational standards, restrict each race to certain kinds
of jobs, curtail black labor unions, and abolish nonwhite
participation (through white representatives) in the national
government.
The Population Registration Act of 1950 required the
classification of every individual born in South Africa according to
race: white (European), Asian (Indian), "colored" (mixed-race), or
African. Apartheid over the years has become an infamous term
that signifies institutionalized injustice based on racial
discrimination. Antiapartheid actions and campaigns have been
undertaken within and outside South Africa to protest the continued
deprivation of political rights and economic justice affecting the
majority of South African inhabitants
TRAVEL NOTES
Travel advisory
The Department of State advises US citizens that the political
situation in South Africa remains tense. A state-of-emergency
with severe restrictions on the antiapartheid opposition and the
media has been in effect since 1986. Visitors should be aware that
antiapartheid demonstrations are often met with force by security
officials and that the potential for violent clashes always exists in
such situations. Many forms of political gatherings and other
expressions of dissent are prohibited or are subject to strict
control. State of Emergency regulations allow security officials to
detain persons whom they consider a threat to public order and hold
them indefinitely without charge. Foreign nationals, including US
citizens, are not immune from such detention. Severe restrictions
have been placed on the reporting or photographing of antiapartheid
activities or incidents of unrest. US citizens should exercise
extreme caution in photographing or filming any assembly that
could be construed as antigovernment.
Travel to the areas most frequented by tourists, such as city
centers, game parks, and beaches, generally is safe. Although bomb
explosions have been numerous in recent years against civilian
targets, including shipping centers and bus terminals, the frequency
of such bombings appears to be diminishing.
Travel to the "independent" homelands of Bophuthatswana,
Venda, Ciskei, and Transkei is discouraged. The South African
Government claims these areas are independent countries, but the
United States and all other countries have refused to recognize
their independence. Homeland officials often deny or limit access
by US consular officials to US citizens under arrest or otherwise in
distress in these areas. These officials have not consistently
notified US consular officials when American citizens have been
arrested in the homelands.
Because of the potential for fast-changing political
developments, US citizens who live in South Africa or visit for an
extended period should register upon arrival at the US Embassy in
Pretoria or the US Consulates General in Johannesburg, Cape Town,
or Durban.
Climate and clothing
Clothing suitable for central and southern California is
appropriate for South Africa's mild climate. Remember that
seasons in the southern hemisphere are reversed: winter there
corresponds to summer here and vice versa. Customs: US citizens
must obtain visas before arriving. No immunizations are required,
except for yellow fever if the traveler passes through an infected
area. Health: The standard of community sanitation is high, and city
water is potable. A cholera immunization is recommended for
travelers visiting an infected area. Avoid swimming in fresh water,
which may be infested with bilharzia.
Telecommunications:
Telephone service in South Africa is good, and cities have
direct-dial systems. Calls to the United States can be dialed
directly, and connections usually are good. South Africa is 7 hours
ahead of eastern standard time and 6 hours ahead of eastern
daylight savings time. South Africa does not observe daylight
saving time.
Transportation
South Africa has a modern transportation network, including
regularly scheduled flights, trains between major cities, and
excellent paved highways.
Tourist attractions
Major attractions include Kruger National Park for game viewing;
the Cape Peninsula, including the national park at the Cape of Good
Hope; and the sandy beaches of Natal. Most outdoor activities are
available, ranging from hiking and mountain climbing to tennis and
cricket. The major cities offer various cultural attractions, such
as theaters, art galleries and museums. National holidays: Shops
and businesses may be closed on the following holidays.
Holidays
New Year's Day January 1
Founders' Day April 6
Good Friday* Easter Monday* Ascension Day*
Labor Day May 1
Republic Day May 31
Kruger Day October 10
Day of the Vow December 16
Christmas Day December 25
Day of Good Will December 26
*Dates vary.
Further Information
These titles are provided as a general indication of the
material published on this country. The Department of State does
not endorse unofficial publications.
Adam, Heribert and Kogila Moodley. South Africa Without
Apartheid. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Adams, H., and H. Giliomee. The Rise of Afrikaner Power.Cape
Town: David Philip, 1979.
Baker, Pauline H. "The United States Policy in Southern
Africa." Current History. Vol. 86, No. 520, May, 1987.
Berger, Peter L. and Bobby Godsell. A Future South Africa.
1989
De Klerk, F. W. The Puritans in Africa-A Study in
Afrikanerdom. London: Collins, 1975
Gordon, L., ed. Survey of Race Relations in South Africa.
Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, annual.
Lelyveld, Joseph. Move Your Shadow. New York: Time
Books, 1985.
Lodge, Tom. Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945.
Braamfontein: Raven Press, 1983.
Michener, James A. The Covenant. New York: Random House,
1980.
Official Yearbook of the Republic of South Africa.
Johannesburg: Chris van Rensburg Publications, annual.
Omond, Roger. The Apartheid Handbook. Harmondsworth,
Middlesex, England, NY, Penguin Books, 1985.
Pakenham, T. The Boer War. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson,1979.
Paton, Alan. Cry, the Beloved Country. New York:
Scribner,1948.
Rotberg, Robert I. South Africa and its Neighbors: Regional
Security and Self Interest. Lexington, MA.: Lexington Books, 1985.
Skinner, Elliot. Beyond Constructive Engagement. New York:
Paragon House, 1986.
Study Commission on US Policy Toward Southern Africa.
South Africa: Time Running Out. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1981.
Wilson, Francis and Mamphela Ramphele. Uprooting Poverty:
The South African Challenge. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989.
Average Real Growth Rate
1960-69 1970-79 1980-85
Group of 7 GDP 5.6 3.6 2.2
South Africa GDP 5.7 3.4 1.9
South Africa Exports 4.7 3.7 0.9
Available from the Superintendent of Documents, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402: American University. South
Africa-A Country Study. 1981. US Department of Commerce. "South
Africa" Foreign Economic Trends and Their Implications for the
United States. Semiannual. US Department of State. Background
Notes on Namibia. January 1987.
Published by the United States Department of State -- Bureau of
Public Affairs -- Office of Public Communication -- Editorial
Division -- Washington, D.C.-- March 1990 Editor: Jim Pinkelman
Department of State Publication 8021 Background Notes Series --
This material is in the public domain and may be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated. For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, US. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402. (###)